Where lies Carthage 1922. Carthage (Tunisia): location on the map, photo, ancient history, excursions and reviews of tourists

Ancient Carthage was founded in 814 BC. colonists from the Phoenician city of Fez. According to ancient legend, Carthage was founded by Queen Elissa (Dido), who was forced to flee from Fez after her brother Pygmalion, the king of Tyre, killed her husband Syche in order to take possession of his wealth.

Its name in Phoenician "Kart-Hadasht" means "New City" in translation, perhaps in contrast to the more ancient colony of Utica.

According to another legend about the founding of the city, Elissa was allowed to occupy as much land as an ox-skin would cover. She acted quite cunningly - taking possession of a large plot of land, cutting the skin into narrow belts. Therefore, the citadel erected on this site became known as Birsa (meaning "skin").

Carthage was originally a small city, not much different from other Phoenician colonies on the shores of the Mediterranean, in addition to the essential fact that it was not part of the Tyrian state, although it retained spiritual ties with the metropolis.

The city's economy was based primarily on intermediary trade. The craft was poorly developed and, in terms of its main technical and aesthetic characteristics, did not differ from the eastern one. Agriculture was non-existent. The Carthaginians did not then have possessions outside the narrow space of the city itself, and for the land on which the city stood, they had to pay tribute to the local population. The political system of Carthage was originally a monarchy, and the founder of the city was at the head of the state. With her death, probably the only member of the royal family who was in Carthage disappeared. As a result, a republic was established in Carthage, and power passed to the ten "princeps" who had previously surrounded the queen.

Territorial expansion of Carthage

Terracotta mask. III-II centuries. BC. Carthage.

In the first half of the 7th c. BC. a new stage in the history of Carthage begins. It is possible that many new settlers from the metropolis moved there because of the fear of the Assyrian invasion, and this led to the expansion of the city attested by archeology. This strengthened it and made it possible to move on to more active trade - in particular, Carthage replaces Phenicia proper in trade with Etruria. All this leads to significant changes in Carthage, the external expression of which is the change in the forms of ceramics, the revival of the old Canaanite traditions already left in the East, the emergence of new, original forms of art and craft products.

Already at the beginning of the second stage of its history, Carthage becomes such a significant city that it can begin its own colonization. The first colony was bred by the Carthaginians around the middle of the 7th century. BC. on the island of Ebes off the east coast of Spain. Apparently, the Carthaginians did not want to oppose the interests of the metropolis in southern Spain and were looking for workarounds to Spanish silver and tin. However, Carthaginian activity in the area soon stumbled upon the rivalry of the Greeks, who settled at the beginning of the 6th century. BC. in southern Gaul and eastern Spain. The first round of the Carthaginian-Greek wars remained with the Greeks, who, although they did not oust the Carthaginians from Ebes, managed to paralyze this important point.

Failure in the extreme west of the Mediterranean forced the Carthaginians to turn to its center. They established a number of colonies to the east and west of their city and subjugated the old Phoenician colonies in Africa. Having strengthened, the Carthaginians could no longer tolerate such a situation that they paid tribute to the Libyans for their own territory. An attempt to get rid of tribute is associated with the name of the commander Malchus, who, having won victories in Africa, freed Carthage from tribute.

Somewhat later, in the 60-50s of the VI century. BC, the same Malchus fought in Sicily, which apparently resulted in the subjugation of the Phoenician colonies on the island. And after the victories in Sicily, Malchus crossed over to Sardinia, but was defeated there. This defeat was for the Carthaginian oligarchs, who were afraid of the too victorious commander, a reason to sentence him to exile. In response, Malchus returned to Carthage and seized power. However, he was soon defeated and executed. Magon took the leading place in the state.

Mago and his successors had to solve difficult problems. To the west of Italy, the Greeks established themselves, threatening the interests of both the Carthaginians and some Etruscan cities. With one of these cities - Caere, Carthage was in especially close economic and cultural contacts. In the middle of the 5th century BC. the Carthaginians and Ceretans entered into an alliance against the Greeks who settled in Corsica. Around 535 BC At the Battle of Alalia, the Greeks defeated the combined Carthaginian-Ceretian fleet, but suffered such heavy losses that they were forced to leave Corsica. The Battle of Alalia contributed to a clearer distribution of spheres of influence in the center of the Mediterranean. Sardinia was included in the Carthaginian sphere, which was confirmed by the treaty between Carthage and Rome in 509 BC. However, the Carthaginians could not completely capture Sardinia. A whole system of fortresses, ramparts and ditches separated their possessions from the territory of the free Sardis.

The Carthaginians, led by rulers and commanders from the Magonid family, waged a stubborn struggle on all fronts: in Africa, Spain and Sicily. In Africa, they subjugated all the Phoenician colonies located there, including ancient Utica, which did not want to become part of their state for a long time, waged war with the Greek colony Cyrene, located between Carthage and Egypt, repulsed the attempt of the Spartan prince Doriay to establish himself east of Carthage and ousted the Greeks from the emerging there were their cities to the west of the capital. They launched an offensive against the local tribes. In a stubborn struggle, the Magonids managed to subdue them. Part of the conquered territory was directly subordinated to Carthage, forming its agricultural territory - the chorus. The other part was left to the Libyans, but subjected to the strict control of the Carthaginians, and the Libyans had to pay heavy taxes to their masters and serve in their army. The heavy Carthaginian yoke more than once caused powerful uprisings of the Libyans.

Phoenician comb ring. Carthage. Gold. 6th-5th centuries BC.

Spain at the end of the 6th century BC. the Carthaginians took advantage of the attack of the Tartessians on Hades in order to intervene in the affairs of the Iberian Peninsula under the pretext of protecting their half-blooded city. They captured Hades, who did not want to peacefully submit to his "savior", followed by the collapse of the Tartessian state. Carthaginians at the beginning of the 5th century. BC. established control over its remains. However, an attempt to extend it to Southeastern Spain met with determined resistance from the Greeks. At the naval Battle of Artemisia, the Carthaginians were defeated and forced to abandon their attempt. But the strait at the Pillars of Hercules remained under their rule.

At the end of VI - beginning of V century. BC. Sicily became the scene of a fierce Carthaginian-Greek battle. Failed in Africa, Doriay decided to establish himself in the west of Sicily, but was defeated by the Carthaginians and killed.

His death was the reason for the war with Carthage for the Syracusan tyrant Gelon. In 480 BC the Carthaginians, having entered into an alliance with Xerxes, who was advancing at that time on Balkan Greece, and taking advantage of the difficult political situation in Sicily, where part of the Greek cities opposed Syracuse and went to an alliance with Carthage, launched an attack on the Greek part of the island. But in a fierce battle at Himera, they were utterly defeated, and their commander Hamilcar, the son of Mago, died. As a result, the Carthaginians could hardly hold out in the previously captured small part of Sicily.

The Magonids also attempted to establish themselves on the Atlantic shores of Africa and Europe. To this end, in the first half of the 5th c. BC. two expeditions were undertaken:

1. in a southerly direction under the leadership of Hanno,
2. in the north headed by Himilcon.

So in the middle of the 5th c. BC. the Carthaginian state was formed, which at that time became the largest and one of the strongest states in the Western Mediterranean. Its members included -

• the northern coast of Africa to the west of Greek Cyrenaica and a number of the interior territories of this mainland, as well as a small part of the Atlantic coast immediately south of the Pillars of Hercules;
• the southwestern part of Spain and a large part of the Balearic Islands off the eastern coast of this country;
• Sardinia (actually only part of it);
• Phoenician cities in western Sicily;
• islands between Sicily and Africa.

The internal situation of the Carthaginian state

Position of cities, allies and subjects of Carthage

The supreme god of the Carthaginians is Baal Hammon. Terracotta. 1st century AD Carthage.

This power was a complex phenomenon. Its core was Carthage itself with the territory directly subordinated to it - the hora. Hora was located directly outside the walls of the city and was divided into separate territorial districts, managed by a special official, each district included several communities.

With the expansion of the Carthaginian state, non-African possessions were sometimes included in the chorus, as part of Sardinia captured by the Carthaginians. Another component of the state was the Carthaginian colonies, which supervised the surrounding lands, were in some cases centers of trade and crafts, and served as a reservoir for absorbing the "surplus" of the population. They had certain rights, but were under the control of a special resident sent from the capital.

The structure of the state included the old colonies of Tyre. Some of them (Hades, Utica, Kossura) were officially considered equal with the capital, others legally occupied a lower position. But the official position and true role in the power of these cities did not always coincide. So, Utica was practically completely subordinate to Carthage (which later led more than once to the fact that this city, under favorable conditions for it, took an anti-Carthaginian position), and the legally inferior cities of Sicily, in whose loyalty the Carthaginians were especially interested, enjoyed significant privileges.

The structure of the state included tribes and cities that were under the allegiance of Carthage. These were the Libyans outside the choirs and the subordinate tribes of Sardinia and Spain. They, too, were in a different position. The Carthaginians did not interfere unnecessarily in their internal affairs, limiting themselves to taking hostages, recruiting them into military service, and rather heavy taxes.

The Carthaginians also ruled over the "allies". Those managed independently, but were deprived of a foreign policy initiative and had to supply contingents to the Carthaginian army. Their attempt to evade submission to the Carthaginians was seen as a rebellion. Tax was also imposed on some of them, their loyalty was ensured by hostages. But the farther from the borders of the state, the more independent the local kings, dynasts and tribes became. A grid of territorial divisions was superimposed on this entire complex conglomeration of cities, peoples and tribes.

Economy and social structure

The creation of the state led to significant changes in the economic and social structure of Carthage. With the advent of land holdings, where the estates of aristocrats were located, diverse agriculture began to develop in Carthage. It gave even more products to the Carthaginian merchants (however, often the merchants themselves were wealthy landowners), and this stimulated the further growth of Carthaginian trade. Carthage becomes one of the largest trading centers in the Mediterranean.

A large number of subordinate population appeared, located at different levels of the social ladder. At the very top of this ladder stood the Carthaginian slave-owning aristocracy, which constituted the top of the Carthaginian citizenship - the "people of Carthage", and at the very bottom - slaves and groups of the dependent population close to them. Between these extremes there was a whole gamut of foreigners, "meteks", the so-called "Sidonian husbands" and other categories of an inferior, semi-dependent and dependent population, including residents of subordinate territories.

There was a counterposition of Carthaginian citizenship to the rest of the population of the state, including slaves. The civil collective itself consisted of two groups -

1. aristocrats, or "powerful ones", and
2. "small", i.e. plebs.

Despite the division into two groups, citizens acted together as a close-knit natural association of oppressors, interested in the exploitation of all other inhabitants of the state.

The system of property and power in Carthage

The material basis of the civil collective was communal property, which acted in two guises: the property of the entire community (for example, the arsenal, shipyards, etc.) and the property of individual citizens (land, workshops, shops, ships, except for state ones, especially military ones, etc.). d.). Apart from communal property, there was no other sector. Even the property of the temples was placed under the control of the community.

Priestess sarcophagus. Marble. 4th-3rd centuries BC. Carthage.

In theory, the civil collective also possessed all the fullness of state power. We do not know exactly what posts were occupied by Malchus, who seized power, and the Magonids who came after him to rule the state (sources in this regard are very contradictory). In fact, their position seems to have resembled that of the Greek tyrants. Under the leadership of the Magonids, the Carthaginian state was actually created. But then it seemed to the Carthaginian aristocrats that this family had become "difficult for the freedom of the state", and the grandchildren of Mago were expelled. The expulsion of the Magonids in the middle of the 5th century. BC. led to the establishment of a republican form of government.

The highest power in the republic, at least officially, and at critical moments actually, belonged to the people's assembly, which embodied the sovereign will of the civil collective. In fact, the leadership was carried out by oligarchic councils and magistrates elected from among the wealthy and noble citizens, primarily two sufets, in whose hands the executive power was for a year.

The people could intervene in the affairs of government only in the event of disagreements among the rulers, which arose during periods of political crises. The people also had the right to choose, although very limited, councilors and magistrates. In addition, the “people of Carthage” were tamed in every way by the aristocrats, who gave him a share of the benefits from the existence of the state: not only the “powerful”, but also the “small” profited from the sea and trade power of Carthage, people sent for supervision were recruited from the “plebs”. over subordinate communities and tribes, participation in wars gave a certain benefit, because in the presence of a significant mercenary army, citizens were still not completely separated from military service, they were also represented at various levels of the land army, from privates to commanders, and especially in the navy.

Thus, in Carthage, a self-contained civil collective was formed, with sovereign power and based on communal property, next to which there was neither royal power, standing above citizenship, nor a non-communal sector in the socio-economic plan. Therefore, we can say that a policy arose here, i.e. this form of economic, social and political organization of citizens, which is characteristic of the ancient version of the ancient society. Comparing the situation in Carthage with the situation in the metropolis, it should be noted that the cities of Phoenicia itself, with all the development of the commodity economy, remained within the eastern version of the development of ancient society, and Carthage became an ancient state.

The formation of the Carthaginian policy and the formation of the state were the main content of the second stage of the history of Carthage. The Carthaginian state arose in the course of a fierce struggle between the Carthaginians, both with the local population and with the Greeks. The wars against the latter had a pronounced imperialist character, for they were waged for the seizure and exploitation of foreign territories and peoples.

Rise of Carthage

From the second half of the 5th c. BC. the third stage of Carthaginian history begins. The state had already been created, and now it was about its expansion and attempts to establish hegemony in the Western Mediterranean. The main obstacle to this initially were all the same Western Greeks. In 409 BC the Carthaginian commander Hannibal landed in Motia, and a new round of wars began in Sicily, which continued intermittently for more than a century and a half.

Gilded bronze cuirass. III-II centuries. BC. Carthage.

Initially, success leaned towards Carthage. The Carthaginians subjugated the Elimes and Sikans who lived in the west of Sicily and launched an offensive against Syracuse, the most powerful Greek city on the island and the most implacable opponent of Carthage. In 406, the Carthaginians besieged Syracuse, and the plague that had just begun in the Carthaginian camp saved the Syracusans. Peace 405 BC secured the western part of Sicily for Carthage. True, this success turned out to be unstable, and the border between Carthaginian and Greek Sicily always remained pulsating, moving either east or west as one side or another succeeded.

The failures of the Carthaginian army almost immediately responded with an aggravation of internal contradictions in Carthage, including powerful uprisings of Libyans and slaves. End of the 5th - first half of the 4th c. BC. were a time of sharp clashes within citizenship, both between individual groups of aristocrats, and, apparently, between the “plebs” involved in these clashes and aristocratic groups. At the same time, the slaves rose up against the masters, and the subject peoples against the Carthaginians. And only with calm within the state, the Carthaginian government was able in the middle of the 4th century. BC. resume outward expansion.

Then the Carthaginians established control over the southeast of Spain, which they unsuccessfully tried to do a century and a half ago. In Sicily, they launched a new offensive against the Greeks and achieved a number of successes, again finding themselves under the walls of Syracuse and even capturing their port. The Syracusans were forced to seek help from their metropolis of Corinth, and an army arrived from there, led by a capable commander, Timoleon. Hanno, the commander of the Carthaginian troops in Sicily, failed to prevent the landing of Timoleon and was recalled to Africa, and his successor was defeated and cleared the Syracusan harbor. Gannon, returning to Carthage, decided to use the situation that had arisen in connection with this and seize power. After the failure of the coup, he fled the city, armed 20,000 slaves, and called the Libyans and Moors to arms. The rebellion was defeated, Hanno, along with all his relatives, was executed, and only one of his son Gisgon managed to escape death and was expelled from Carthage.

However, the turn of affairs in Sicily soon forced the Carthaginian government to turn to Gisgona. The Carthaginians were severely defeated by Timoleon, and then a new army was sent there, led by Gisgon. Gisgon entered into an alliance with some tyrants of the Greek cities of the island and defeated individual detachments of Timoleon's army. This allowed in 339 BC. to conclude a peace that was relatively advantageous for Carthage, according to which he retained his possessions in Sicily. After these events, the Hannonid family became the most influential in Carthage for a long time, although there could be no talk of any tyranny, as was the case with the Magonids.

Wars with the Greeks of Syracuse went on as usual and with varying success. At the end of the IV century. BC. the Greeks even landed in Africa, threatening Carthage directly. The Carthaginian commander Bomilcar decided to seize the opportunity and seize power. But the citizens opposed him, crushing the rebellion. And soon the Greeks were repulsed from the Carthaginian walls and returned to Sicily. The attempt of the Epirus king Pyrrhus to oust the Carthaginians from Sicily in the 70s was also unsuccessful. 3rd century BC. All these endless and tedious wars showed that neither the Carthaginians nor the Greeks had the strength to take Sicily from each other.

The emergence of a new rival - Rome

The situation changed in the 60s. 3rd century BC, when a new predator intervened in this fight - Rome. In 264 the first war broke out between Carthage and Rome. In 241, it ended with the complete loss of Sicily.

This outcome of the war exacerbated the contradictions in Carthage and gave rise to an acute internal crisis there. Its most striking manifestation was a powerful uprising, in which hired soldiers took part, dissatisfied with the non-payment of the money due to them, the local population, who sought to throw off the heavy Carthaginian oppression, and slaves who hated their masters. The uprising unfolded in the immediate vicinity of Carthage, probably also covering Sardinia and Spain. The fate of Carthage hung in the balance. With great difficulty and at the cost of incredible cruelty, Hamilcar, who had become famous in Sicily, managed to suppress this uprising, and then went to Spain, continuing to "pacify" the Carthaginian possessions. They had to say goodbye to Sardinia, yielding it to Rome, which threatened a new war.

The second aspect of the crisis was the growing role of citizenship. The rank and file, who in theory held sovereign power, now sought to turn theory into practice. A democratic "party" emerged, led by Hasdrubal. A split also occurred among the oligarchy, in which two groups emerged.

1. One was headed by Gannon from the influential Hannonid family - they stood for a cautious and peaceful policy that excluded a new conflict with Rome;
2. and the other - Hamilcar, representing the Barkid family (nicknamed Hamilcar - Barca, literally, "lightning") - they were for an active one, whose goal was to take revenge from the Romans.

Rise of the Barkids and war with Rome

Presumably a bust of Hannibal Barca. Found in Capua in 1932.

Wide circles of citizenship were also interested in revenge, for which the influx of wealth from subordinate lands and from the monopoly of maritime trade was beneficial. Therefore, an alliance arose between the Barkids and the Democrats, sealed by the marriage of Hasdrubal to the daughter of Hamilcar. Relying on the support of democracy, Hamilcar managed to overcome the intrigues of enemies and go to Spain. In Spain, Hamilcar and his successors from the Barcid family, including his son-in-law Hasdrubal, greatly expanded the Carthaginian possessions.

After the overthrow of the Magonids, the ruling circles of Carthage did not allow the unification of military and civil functions in one hand. However, during the war with Rome, they began to practice similar practices following the example of the Hellenistic states, but not at the national level, as was the case under the Magonides, but at the local level. Such was the power of the Barkids in Spain. But the Barkids exercised their powers in the Iberian Peninsula independently. Strong reliance on the army, close ties with democratic circles in Carthage itself, and the special relationship that the Barkids had with the local population contributed to the emergence in Spain of a semi-independent power of the Barkids, essentially of a Hellenistic type.

Already Hamilcar considered Spain as a springboard for a new war with Rome. His son Hannibal in 218 BC provoked this war. The Second Punic War began. Hannibal himself went to Italy, leaving his brother in Spain. Military operations unfolded on several fronts, and the Carthaginian commanders (especially Hannibal) won a number of victories. But victory in the war remained with Rome.

Peace 201 BC deprived Carthage of the navy, all non-African possessions and forced the Carthaginians to recognize the independence of Numidia in Africa, the king of which the Carthaginians had to return all the possessions of his ancestors (this article laid a "delayed mine" under Carthage), and the Carthaginians themselves did not have the right to wage war without permission Rome. This war not only deprived Carthage of the position of a great power, but also significantly limited its sovereignty. The third stage of Carthaginian history, which began with such happy omens, ended with the bankruptcy of the Carthaginian aristocracy that had ruled the republic for so long.

Internal position

At this stage, a radical transformation of the economic, social and political life of Carthage did not occur. But certain changes did take place. In the IV century. BC. Carthage began to mint its own coin. A certain Hellenization of a part of the Carthaginian aristocracy takes place, and two cultures arise in the Carthaginian society, as is typical for the Hellenistic world. As in the Hellenistic states, in a number of cases civil and military power is concentrated in the same hands. In Spain, a semi-independent power of the Barkids arose, the heads of which felt their kinship with the then rulers of the Middle East, and where a system of relations between the conquerors and the local population appeared, similar to that existing in the Hellenistic states.

Carthage had considerable expanses of land suitable for cultivation. In contrast to other Phoenician city-states, large agricultural plantation farms developed on a large scale in Carthage, where the labor of numerous slaves was exploited. The plantation economy of Carthage played a very important role in the economic history of the ancient world, since it influenced the development of the same type of slave economy, first in Sicily, and then in Italy.

In the VI century. BC. or maybe in the 5th century. BC. in Carthage lived the writer-theorist of the plantation slave economy Magon, whose great work enjoyed such fame that the Roman army besieging Carthage in the middle of the 2nd century. BC, an order was given to preserve this work. And he was really saved. By order of the Roman Senate, Mago's work was translated from Phoenician into Latin, and then was used by all the theorists of agriculture in Rome. For their plantation economy, for craft workshops and for their galleys, the Carthaginians needed a huge number of slaves, selected by them from among the prisoners of war and bought.

Sunset of Carthage

The defeat in the second war with Rome opened the last stage of Carthaginian history. Carthage lost its power, and its possessions were reduced to a small district near the city itself. Opportunities to exploit the non-Carthaginian population disappeared. Large groups of dependent and semi-dependent populations got out of control of the Carthaginian aristocracy. The agricultural area was drastically reduced, and trade again assumed predominating importance.

Glass vessels for ointments and balms. OK. 200 BC

If earlier not only the nobility, but also the "plebs" received certain benefits from the existence of the state, now they have disappeared. This, of course, caused an acute social and political crisis, which has now gone beyond the existing institutions.

In 195 BC Hannibal, becoming a Sufet, carried out a reform state structure, which dealt a blow to the very foundations of the former system with its domination of the aristocracy and opened the way to practical power, on the one hand, for wide sections of the civilian population, and on the other, for demagogues who could take advantage of the movement of these sections. Under these conditions, a fierce political struggle unfolded in Carthage, reflecting sharp contradictions within the civil collective. First, the Carthaginian oligarchy managed to take revenge, with the help of the Romans, forcing Hannibal to flee without completing the work he had begun. But the oligarchs could not keep their power intact.

By the middle of the II century. BC. Three political factions fought in Carthage. In the course of this struggle, Hasdrubal, who led the anti-Roman group, became the leading figure, and his position led to the establishment of a regime of the type of Greek junior tyranny. The rise of Hasdrubal frightened the Romans. In 149 BC. Rome began a third war with Carthage. This time, for the Carthaginians, it was no longer about domination over certain subjects and not about hegemony, but about their own life and death. The war was practically reduced to the siege of Carthage. Despite the heroic resistance of the citizens, in 146 BC. the city fell and was destroyed. Most of the citizens died in the war, and the rest were taken into slavery by the Romans. The history of Phoenician Carthage ended.

The history of Carthage shows the process of transformation of an eastern city into an ancient state, the formation of a policy. And having become a policy, Carthage also survived the crisis of this form of organization of ancient society. At the same time, it must be emphasized that we do not know what the way out of the crisis could be here, since the natural course of events was interrupted by Rome, which dealt a fatal blow to Carthage. The Phoenician cities of the metropolis, which developed in different historical conditions, remained within the framework of the eastern version of the ancient world and, having become part of the Hellenistic states, they already switched to a new historical path as part of them.

CARTHAGE (Phoenician Karthadasht, literally - New City; hence the Greek Kaρ - χηδών, Latin Carthago, Cartago, now Cartajanna), an ancient city-state in North Africa (18 km northeast of the modern city of Tunisia), in 7-4 century BC, subjugated a significant part of the coast of North Africa, southern Spain and a number of islands in the Mediterranean Sea. It was founded by the Phoenicians from the city of Tire in the last quarter of the 9th century BC. According to mythological tradition, the founder of Carthage was Dido (Elissa), who became the queen of the new city. After her death, the monarchy was abolished.

Due to its convenient geographical position, since the beginning of the 7th century, Carthage has become a major handicraft city and a center of intermediary trade, maintaining close ties with the countries of the Eastern Mediterranean, the Aegean basin, the cities of Italy and Tartessus. In the 6th century, the commander Malchus, having defeated the local African population, freed Carthage from paying tribute. The subjugation of other Phoenician cities in Africa is also connected with Malch. In the 60-50s of the 6th century, Malchus led military operations on the island of Sicily, which resulted in the subordination of the Phoenician cities of this island to Carthage. The campaign of the Carthaginians on the island of Sardinia (545-535) ended in failure. As punishment, Malchus was sentenced to exile along with his entire army. In response, the commander arbitrarily returned to Carthage and tried to carry out a coup d'état, which failed, and Malchus was executed. After these events, Magon took the leading position in the state. The Magonids held power for three generations. Their important partners in the center of the Mediterranean were the Etruscans, and in alliance with the Etruscan city of Caere, they ousted the Greeks from the island of Corsica. There was a redistribution of spheres of influence in this region, and Sardinia finally fell under the influence of Carthage. In Spain, the Carthaginians destroyed Tartessos and subjugated the remnants of the Tartessian state. They tried to capture Sicily as well, but in 480 they were defeated, retaining its western part. A powerful Carthaginian state arose.

Ancient authors write about Carthaginian diversified agriculture. A complex socio-political system of Carthage was formed. There was an opposition of Carthaginian citizens to the rest of the population of the state. The community of citizens consisted of two groups - "powerful", that is, the aristocracy, and "small", as the lower strata of citizens were called. In relation to slaves and other categories of the subordinate population, citizens acted as a close-knit association. The material basis of the civil community was communal property, which appeared in two forms: as the property of the entire community (for example, arsenals, shipyards, etc.) and as the property of individual citizens. The property of citizens was predominantly small and medium. Large proprietors owned several relatively small estates.

Around the middle of the 5th century BC, the power of the Magonids was overthrown. Carthage became an aristocratic republic. The supreme power officially belonged to the people, but in practice it was in the hands of 2 councils (the first - more numerous and the second - consisting of 100 or 104 members; perhaps the latter was a kind of permanent body under the former). An important role in the management was played by pentarchies (commissions of five members), which were not elected, but themselves co-opted their members, who retained influence even after the tenure of the commissions. The highest executive power was two Suffets, elected for a year (they could be re-elected more than once). The main military force was a mercenary army, but the citizens of Carthage themselves were involved in military service (for example, the fleet was recruited from citizens). Citizens were elected to the highest posts in the state, taking into account the property qualification, which sharply reduced the number of people actually admitted to power.

The core of the Carthaginian state was Carthage with the territory directly subordinated to it, and the colonies it brought out. The colonies previously withdrawn by Tire were also subordinate to Carthage, although some of them were officially considered equal with Carthage. The Phoenician colonies (Utica, Hippo, Leptis Magna, Leptis Minor, etc.), which were part of the Carthaginian state, had a social and political structure close to Carthage and, apparently, enjoyed internal autonomy. They had to pay the Carthaginian authorities a tax-duty from their trade. The next category of territories subordinated to Carthage were "subjects". For the most part, Carthage did not interfere in their internal life, preserving their socio-political structure and limiting themselves to taking hostages. But sometimes the Carthaginians established "direct" control through their representatives, forcibly attracting the inhabitants of these territories to military service and imposing heavy taxes. The arbitrariness of the Carthaginian officials increased. Another category is "allies". They were deprived of foreign policy initiative and had to supply contingents to the Carthaginian army. A tax was imposed on them (although probably less than the tax on subjects), their loyalty was also ensured by taking hostages. Attempts by the "allies" to evade their duties were perceived as a rebellion. The existence of such a structure of the Carthaginian state was beneficial not only to the ruling elite, but also to wide sections of the citizens of Carthage. Many citizens went to the colonies and other subordinate cities and territories both as settlers and as officials, which gave them the opportunity to dramatically improve their financial situation. Wide sections of Carthaginian artisans and especially merchants benefited from maritime and commercial predominance.

The Carthaginian state arose as a result of a fierce struggle between the Carthaginians, both with the local population (Libyans, Numidians, etc.), and with their rivals - the Greeks (especially in Sicily). Wars with the Sicilian Greeks went on with varying success. The border between the Carthaginian and Greek parts of the island moved from one side to the other, but on the whole the division of Sicily into two parts remained unchanged.

In 264 BC, the first war began with the main rival of Carthage in the Western Mediterranean - Rome (see Punic Wars; since the Romans called the Carthaginians Puns, the wars were called Punic). As a result of the 1st Punic War (264-241), Carthage lost Sicily. This led to a social and political crisis, an uprising of mercenaries joined by slaves, Libyans and Numidians. The uprising spread to Sardinia and Spain. Only with great efforts, using cunning diplomacy and incredible cruelty, Hamilcar Barca, who stood at the head of the army, managed to defeat the enemies. Carthage was forced to cede Sardinia to Rome. There was a split among the ruling oligarchy. The Barkids (members of the family of Hamilcar Barca) and their supporters advocated the preparation of a new war with Rome, for the restoration of the dominant position of Carthage in the Western Mediterranean. Their interests coincided with the interests of broad sections of citizens who were also interested in revenge. On this basis, an alliance arose between the Barkids and the democratic "party" (led by Hasdrubal).

Hamilcar and his successors restored and expanded the Carthaginian possessions in Spain. Hamilcar's son Hannibal, who led the army, attacked the city of Sagunt, which was in alliance with Rome. This attack was a clear provocation, calculated to be a response from Rome. The 2nd Punic War began (218-201), which, despite the brilliant passage of Hannibal through the Pyrenees and the Alps and victories in a number of battles in Italy, including Cannes (216), ended with the defeat of the Carthaginian army. Under the terms of the treaty, the Carthaginians had to pay a huge indemnity, hand over the entire navy, renounce all non-African possessions, and recognize the independence of Numidia in Africa itself. Carthage actually became a protectorate of Rome.

Carthaginian possessions were reduced to a relatively small urban area. The authorities lost the ability to maintain the well-being of citizens at the expense of subordinate peoples and territories, which led to a new social and political crisis. In 195, Hannibal, elected Suffet, carried out a political reform that limited the power of the oligarchy and opened the way to power, on the one hand, for wide sections of the civilian population, and on the other, for demagogues who could take advantage of the movement of these layers.

The further development of Carthage was interrupted by the 3rd Punic War (149-146). In 146, after a three-year siege, Roman soldiers broke into the city. Fierce battles unfolded on its streets. The last stronghold of the defenders - the temple of Eshmun - was set on fire by the besieged themselves, preferring death to slavery. Most of the Carthaginians died, 500 thousand survivors were turned into slaves. Carthage was destroyed to the ground, and the place was plowed up and sown with salt as a sign of eternal damnation. Part of the Carthaginian territory was transferred to the Numidians, the other was turned into the Roman province of Africa.

Under Julius Caesar (44 BC) and Augustus (29 BC), the Roman colony Colonia Iulia Carthago was founded on the site of ancient Carthage, which turned into a large Mediterranean city and port (especially intensive construction was carried out under the Roman emperors Hadrian, Antoninus Pius and Septimius North). In 439 AD it was destroyed by the Vandals, in 533-698 it was part of Byzantium. In 698 conquered by the Arabs.

Lit.: Gsell S. Histoire ancienne de l'Afrique du Nord. R., 1913-1928. Vol. 1-8; Acquaro E. Cartagine: un impero sul Mediterraneo. Rome, 1978; Harden D. The Phoenicians. Harmondsworth, 1980; Korablev I. Sh. Hannibal. M., 1981; Tsirkin Yu. B. Carthage and its culture. M., 1986; Blázquez J. M., Alvar J., Wagper C. G. Fenicios y cartagineses en el Mediterraneo. Madrid, 1999; Huss W. Die Karthager. 3. Aufl. Munich, 2004; Shifman I. Sh. Carthage. SPb., 2006.

Yu. B. Tsirkin.

Art. Written sources, as well as archaeological excavations begun in the 19th century, make it possible to restore in general terms the location of the Punic city of Carthage. It was surrounded by a moat and two powerful walls with towers. It consisted of three parts: located on the hills of the "Upper City" (the citadel of Birs with the temple of the god Eshmun) - the political and religious center; "Lower City", located near the harbors; rural suburb of Megara. The ruins of a whole quarter, the remains of 2 harbors and, possibly, the embankment have been preserved. The excavations of the necropolises uncovered a number of burials dating back to the 7th-2nd centuries BC, many of which had a rich inventory - bronze art objects, jewelry, clay lamps, vessels, figurines, masks. There are imported objects - Egyptian amulets, Corinthian vases, etc. Of interest are sarcophagi with a sculptural image of a person, created under the strong influence of Egyptian and Greek art; a number of items also testify to connections with ancient Italy, mainly with Etruria. The monuments of local art include numerous stelae made of limestone, less often of marble, dedicated to the Phoenician gods Tanit and Baal-Amon. The range of works of Punic art also includes monuments of other cities of the Carthaginian state - Dugga, Utiki, etc.

The art of Carthage of the Roman period is in many ways close to the art of other North African centers: Volubilis and Tingis (now Tangier) in modern Morocco, Caesarea (now Sherchel) in modern Algeria, etc. Architecture of the 2nd-3rd centuries AD is characterized by a desire for luxury and grandiosity. A rectangular network of streets was created in the city; on the hill of Byrsa the Capitol was built, which was surrounded by powerful retaining walls with terraces connected by stairs and decorated with statues; on the site of the temple of the god Eshnum, the temple of Aesculapius was erected. A theater and an odeon were built in the city itself, a circus (about 60 thousand spectators) and an amphitheater were built on the outskirts, which, according to Arab writers, had 5 tiers with arcades decorated with sculptural images of animals, ships, etc. In 131-161, baths were built , which included a huge central hall, lounges on the lower floor and bath rooms on the upper. Inside the baths were decorated with mosaics, marble facings and statues. In the architecture of private houses, the desire to adapt the Hellenistic-Roman peristyle house to the African climate is noticeable. The houses usually had pools and small sanctuaries, often decorated with frescoes and mosaics. Decorative and tomb sculpture became widespread.

Lit.: Audollent A. Carthage romaine. R., 1901; Lezine A. Carthage. Utique: Etudes d'architecture et d'urbanisme. R., 1968; Cintas R. Manuel d'archeologie punique. R., 1970-1976. Vol. 1-2; Benichou-Safar H. Les tombes puniques de Carthage. R., 1982; Lancel S. Carthage. R., 1992.

Carthage- Phoenician, or Punic, state with its capital in the city of the same name, which existed in ancient times in northern Africa, on the territory of modern Tunisia. Carthage was founded in 814 BC. e. colonists from the Phoenician city of Tyre. According to legend, Carthage was founded by Queen Elissa (Dido), who fled from Tyre after her brother Pygmalion, king of Tyre, killed her husband Syche to take possession of his wealth. Throughout the history of Carthage, the inhabitants of the city were famous for their business acumen.

Location
Carthage was founded on a promontory with entrances to the sea in the north and south. The location of the city made it the leader of the maritime trade in the Mediterranean. All ships crossing the sea inevitably passed between Sicily and the coast of Tunisia. The length of the massive city walls was 37 kilometers, and the height in some places reached 12 meters. Most of the walls were located on the coast, which made the city impregnable from the sea. The city had a huge cemetery, places of worship, markets, a city hall, towers, and a theater. It was divided into four identical residential areas. Approximately in the middle of the city stood a high citadel called Birsa. It was one of the largest cities in Hellenistic times.

Story
Carthage was founded by people from the Phoenician city of Tyre at the end of the 9th century BC. e. According to legend, the city was founded by the widow of a Phoenician king named Dido. She promised the local tribe to pay a gem for a piece of land bounded by the skin of a bull, but on the condition that the choice of location was left to her. After the deal was made, the colonists chose a convenient place for the city, ringing it with narrow belts made from a single oxhide. According to Herodotus, Justin and Ovid, soon after the founding of the city, relations between Carthage and the local population deteriorated. Giarb, the leader of the Makaktan tribe, under the threat of war, demanded the hand of Queen Dido, but she preferred death to marriage. The war, however, began and was not in favor of the Carthaginians. According to Ovid, Giarbus even captured the city and held it for several years. Judging by the items found during archaeological excavations, at the beginning of its history, trade links connected Carthage with the metropolis, as well as Cyprus and Egypt. In the VIII century BC. e. the situation in the Mediterranean has changed dramatically. Phoenicia was captured by Assyria and numerous colonies became independent. Assyrian rule caused a massive outflow of population from the ancient Phoenician cities to the colonies. Probably, the population of Carthage was replenished with refugees to such an extent that Carthage was able to form colonies on its own. The first Carthaginian colony in the western Mediterranean was Ebess on the Pitius Islands. At the turn of the 7th and 6th centuries. BC e. Greek colonization began. In order to resist the advance of the Greeks, the Phoenician colonies began to unite into states. In Sicily - Panorm, Soluent, Motia in 580 BC. e. successfully resisted the Greeks. In Spain, an alliance of cities led by Hades fought Tartessus. But the basis of a single Phoenician state in the west was the union of Carthage and Utica. Profitable geographical position allowed Carthage to become the largest city in the western Mediterranean (the population reached 700,000 people), to unite the rest of the Phoenician colonies in North Africa and Spain around itself and to conduct extensive conquests and colonization.
Carthage before the Punic Wars
In the 6th century, the Greeks founded the colony of Massalia and made an alliance with Tartessus. Initially, the Punians were defeated, but Magon I reformed the army, an alliance was concluded with the Etruscans, and in 537 BC. e. in the battle of Alalia, the Greeks were defeated. Soon Tartessos was destroyed and all the Phoenician cities of Spain were annexed. The main source of wealth was trade - Carthaginian merchants traded in Egypt, Italy, Spain, the Black and Red Seas - and agriculture, based on the widespread use of slave labor. There was a regulation of trade - Carthage sought to monopolize trade; to this end, all subjects were obliged to trade only through the mediation of Carthaginian merchants. During the Greco-Persian wars, Carthage was in alliance with Persia, together with the Etruscans, an attempt was made to completely capture Sicily. But after the defeat at the Battle of Himera (480 BC) by a coalition of Greek city-states, the struggle was suspended for several decades. The main opponent of the Punians was Syracuse, the war lasted at intervals for almost a hundred years (394-306 BC) and ended with the almost complete conquest of Sicily by the Punians.
In the III century BC. e. the interests of Carthage came into conflict with the intensified Roman Republic. Relations began to deteriorate. For the first time this manifested itself at the final stage of the war between Rome and Tarentum. Finally, in 264 BC. e. The First Punic War began. It was conducted mainly in Sicily and at sea. The Romans captured Sicily, but this was affected by the almost complete absence of Rome's fleet. Only by 260 BC. e. the Romans created a fleet and, using boarding tactics, won a naval victory at Cape Mila. In 256 BC. e. the Romans moved the fighting to Africa, defeating the fleet, and then the land army of the Carthaginians. But the consul Attilius Regulus did not use the advantage gained, and a year later the Punic army under the command of the Spartan mercenary Xanthippus inflicted a complete defeat on the Romans. Only in 251 BC. e. in the battle of Panorma (Sicily), the Romans won a big victory, capturing 120 elephants. Two years later, the Carthaginians won a great naval victory and there was a lull.
Hamilcar Barca
In 247 BC. e. Hamilcar Barca became the commander-in-chief of Carthage, thanks to his outstanding abilities, success in Sicily began to lean towards the Punians, but in 241 BC. e. Rome, having gathered its strength, was able to put up a new fleet and army. Carthage could no longer resist them and, after the defeat, was forced to make peace, ceding Sicily to Rome, and paying an indemnity of 3,200 talents for 10 years. After the defeat, Hamilcar resigned, power passed to his political opponents, who were led by Hanno.
The apparent inability of the aristocratic government to effectively govern led to the strengthening of the democratic opposition, led by Hamilcar. The People's Assembly gave him the powers of commander-in-chief. In 236 BC. e., having conquered the entire African coast, he transferred the fighting to Spain. He fought there for 9 years until he fell in battle. After his death, his son-in-law Hasdrubal was chosen as the commander-in-chief of the army. For 16 years, most of Spain was conquered and firmly tied to the metropolis. Silver mines delivered very large incomes, a strong army was created in battles. In general, Carthage became much stronger than it was even before the loss of Sicily.
Hannibal Barka
After the death of Hasdrubal, the army chose Hannibal - the son of Hamilcar - as commander-in-chief. All his children - Magon, Hasdrubal and Hannibal - Hamil kar brought up in the spirit of hatred for Rome, therefore, having gained control of the army, Hannibal began to look for a reason for war. In 218 BC. e. he captured Saguntum - a Spanish city and an ally of Rome - the war began. Unexpectedly for the enemy, Hannibal led his army around through the Alps to the territory of Italy. There he won a number of victories - at Ticinum, Trebia and Lake Trasimene. A dictator was appointed in Rome, but in 216 BC. e. near the city of Cannes, Hannibal inflicted a crushing defeat on the Romans, which resulted in the transition to the side of Carthage of a significant part of Italy, and the second most important city, Capua. With the death of Hannibal's brother Hasdrubal, who led him significant reinforcements, the situation of Carthage became very complicated.
Campaigns of Hannibal
Rome soon moved the fighting to Africa. Having entered into an alliance with the Numidian king Massinissa, Scipio inflicted a series of defeats on the Punians. Hannibal was called to his homeland. In 202 B.C. e. in the battle of Zama, commanding a poorly trained army, he was defeated, and the Carthaginians decided to make peace. Under its terms, they were forced to give Rome Spain and all the islands, maintain only 10 warships and pay 10,000 talents of indemnity. In addition, they did not have the right to fight with anyone without the permission of Rome. After the end of the war, Gannon, Gisgon and Hasdrubal Gad, who were hostile to Hannibal, the heads of the aristocratic parties, tried to get Hannibal condemned, but, supported by the population, he managed to retain power. In 196 BC. e. Rome defeated Macedonia in the war, which was an ally of Carthage.
Fall of Carthage
Even after losing two wars, Carthage managed to recover quickly and soon became one of the richest cities again. In Rome, trade has long become an essential branch of the economy, the competition of Carthage hindered its development. His quick recovery was also of great concern. The king of the Numidians, Massinissa, constantly attacked the Carthaginian possessions; realizing that Rome always supported the opponents of Carthage, he moved on to direct seizures. All complaints of the Carthaginians were ignored and decided in favor of Numidia. Finally, the Punians were forced to give him a direct military rebuff. Rome immediately filed claims in connection with the outbreak of hostilities without permission. The Roman army arrived at Carthage. The frightened Carthaginians asked for peace, the consul Lucius Censorinus demanded that all weapons be handed over, then demanded that Carthage be destroyed and that a new city be founded far from the sea. After asking for a month to think it over, the Punians prepared for war. Thus began the Third Punic War. The city was fortified, so it was possible to capture it only after 3 years of difficult siege and heavy fighting. Carthage was completely destroyed, of the 500,000 population, 50,000 were taken prisoner and became slaves. The literature of Carthage was destroyed, with the exception of a treatise on agriculture written by Mago. A Roman province was created on the territory of Carthage, ruled by a governor from Utica.

The legendary wealth of Carthage
Built on the foundation laid by the ancestors of the Phoenicians, Carthage created its own trade network and developed it to an unprecedented size. Carthage maintained its monopoly on trade through a powerful fleet and mercenary troops. Carthaginian merchants were constantly looking for new markets. Approximately 480 BC. e. navigator Himilcon landed in British Cornwall, rich in tin. And after 30 years, Hanno, a native of an influential Carthaginian family, led an expedition of 60 ships, on which there were 30,000 men and women. People were landed in different parts of the coast to establish new colonies. Entrepreneurship and business acumen helped Carthage become, admittedly, the richest city in the ancient world. " At the beginning of the III century BC. e. thanks to technology, fleet and trade... the city has moved to the forefront", - says the book "Carthage". The Greek historian Appian wrote of the Carthaginians: Their power militarily became equal to the Hellenic, but in terms of wealth it was in second place after the Persian».

Regions and cities
The agricultural areas in mainland Africa - the area inhabited by the Carthaginians proper - approximately correspond to the territory of modern Tunisia, although other lands also fell under the authority of the city. There were also real Phoenician colonies - Utica, Leptis, Hadrumet, etc. Information about the relations of Carthage with these cities and some Phoenician settlements in Africa or elsewhere is scarce. The cities of the Tunisian coast showed independence in their politics only in 149 BC, when it became obvious that Rome intended to destroy Carthage. Some of them submitted to Rome. In general, Carthage managed to choose a political line, which was joined by the rest of the Phoenician cities both in Africa and on the other side of the Mediterranean. The Carthaginian empire was vast. In Africa, its easternmost city was over 300 km east of Aea. Between it and the Atlantic Ocean, the ruins of a number of ancient Phoenician and Carthaginian cities were discovered. Around 500 BC or a little later, the navigator Hanno led an expedition that founded several colonies on the Atlantic coast of Africa. He ventured far to the south and left a description of gorillas, tom-toms and other African sights rarely mentioned by ancient authors. The colonies and trading posts were for the most part located at a distance of about one day's sail from each other. Usually they were on islands near the coast, on capes, in the mouths of rivers, or in those places on the mainland of the country, from where it was easy to get to the sea. The power consisted of Malta and two neighboring islands. Carthage fought the Sicilian Greeks for centuries, under its rule were Lilibey and other well-fortified ports in the west of Sicily, as well as, at various periods, other areas on the island. Gradually, Carthage also established control over the fertile regions of Sardinia, while the inhabitants of the mountainous regions of the island remained unconquered. Foreign merchants were denied access to the island. At the beginning of the 5th c. BC. The Carthaginians began to explore Corsica. Carthaginian colonies and trading settlements also existed on the southern coast of Spain, while the Greeks entrenched themselves on the eastern coast. Since arriving here in 237 BC. Hamilcar Barca and before the campaign of Hannibal in Italy, great success was achieved in subjugating the interior regions of Spain.

Government system
Carthage owned fertile lands in the interior of the mainland, it had an advantageous geographical position that favored trade, and also allowed it to control the waters between Africa and Sicily, preventing foreign ships from sailing further west.
Compared with many famous cities of antiquity, Punic Carthage is not so rich in finds, since in 146 BC. the Romans methodically destroyed the city, and in the Roman Carthage, founded on the same site in 44 BC, intensive construction was carried out. Carthage was surrounded by powerful walls with a length of approx. 30 km. Its population is unknown. The citadel was heavily fortified. The city had a market square, a council building, a court and temples. In the quarter called Megara, there were many vegetable gardens, orchards and winding canals. Ships entered the trading harbor through a narrow passage. For loading and unloading, up to 220 ships could be pulled ashore at the same time. Behind the trading harbor there was a military harbor and an arsenal. According to its state structure, Carthage was an oligarchy. Despite the fact that at home, in Phoenicia, the power belonged to the kings. The ancient authors, who for the most part admired the structure of Carthage, compared it with the state system of Sparta and Rome. The power here belonged to the Senate, which was in charge of finance, foreign policy, the declaration of war and peace, and also carried out the general conduct of the war. Executive power was vested in two elected Suffet magistrates. Obviously, these were senators, and their duties were exclusively civil, not involving control over the army. Together with the commanders of the army, they were elected by the people's assembly. The same positions were established in the cities under the rule of Carthage. Although many aristocrats owned vast agricultural lands, land ownership was not the only basis for achieving a high social position. Trade was considered quite a respectable occupation, and the wealth obtained in this way was treated with respect.

Religion of Carthage
The Carthaginians, like other Mediterranean peoples, imagined the universe divided into three worlds, located one above the other. Perhaps this is the same world serpent, which the Ugaritians called Latana, and the ancient Jews called Leviathan. The earth was thought to lie between two oceans. The sun rising from the eastern ocean, bypassing the earth, plunged into the western ocean, which was considered the sea of ​​darkness and the abode of the dead. The souls of the dead could get there on ships or on dolphins. The sky was the seat of the Carthaginian gods. Since the Carthaginians were immigrants from the Phoenician city of Tyre, they revered the gods of Canaan, but not all of them. Yes, and the Canaanite gods on the new soil changed their appearance, absorbing the features of local gods.

The first place among the Carthaginian deities was occupied by the maiden goddess Tannit, known from the 5th century BC. BC e. according to the religious formula of Punic inscriptions as "Tannit before Baal". In importance, she corresponded to the great goddesses of Ugarit - Asherah, Astarte and Anat, but did not coincide with them in functions and in many respects surpassed them, which can be seen at least by her full name. The symbols of Tannit were a crescent, a dove and a triangle with a cross-bar - as if a schematic representation of the female body. One of the main gods of the Carthaginians - Baal-Hammon, who found himself in the shadow of Tannit - retained some features of his predecessor Balu: Baal was also the patron of agriculture, the "bread-bearer", and was depicted with ears of corn in his left hand. Identified with the Greek Kronos, the Etruscan Satre, and the Roman Saturn, Baal-Hammon belonged to the older generation of gods; it was to him that numerous human sacrifices were made. No less revered god in Carthage was Reshef, already known to the Canaanites in the 2nd millennium BC. e., but was not then one of the main gods. The very name Reshef means "flame", "spark", and the god's attribute was a bow, which gave the Greeks reason to identify him with Apollo, although in fact he was most likely the god of thunder and heavenly light, like the Greek Zeus, the Etruscan Tin and the Roman Jupiter . Along with the gods, the Carthaginians revered heroes. Known are the altars of the Filen brothers, who became famous for their exploits in the fight against the local population or the Hellenes. Gods and heroes were worshiped both in the open air, near the altars dedicated to them, and in the temples run by the priests. The combination of priestly and secular positions was allowed. The priesthood of each temple was a collegium, headed by the chief priest, who belonged to the highest strata of the aristocracy. The bulk of the temple staff consisted of ordinary priests and priestesses, whose positions were also considered honorary. Among the ministers were also fortune-tellers, musicians, sacred barbers, scribes and slaves, who occupied a higher position than private and public slaves. The cult attached special importance to sacrifices, usually accompanied by theatrical performances. Part of the harvest, animals and people were sacrificed. Human sacrifices are known to many ancient religions, but if among the Hellenes, Etruscans, Romans they were not of a permanent nature, then in Carthage human sacrifices were made annually - not a single major religious holiday could do without them. The most common were the sacrifices of newborn children. The Carthaginians took the most senior citizens as hostages, the Carthaginian gods demanded as a sacrifice, first of all, the children of the nobility. And none of the prominent politicians and military leaders could save their child from this fate. Over time, the thirst for blood among the Carthaginian gods increased: children were sacrificed to them more and more often and in more and more new territories that were part of the Carthaginian state.

Trade policy
The Carthaginians excelled in trade. Carthage can well be called a trading state, since in its policy it was guided by commercial considerations. Many of his colonies and trading posts were no doubt founded for the purpose of expanding trade. It is known about some expeditions undertaken by the Carthaginian rulers, the reason for which was also the desire for wider trade relations. In an agreement concluded by Carthage in 508 BC. with the Roman Republic, which had just emerged after the expulsion of the Etruscan kings from Rome, it was provided that Roman ships should not sail into the western part of the sea, but they could use the harbor of Carthage. In the event of a forced landing anywhere else in Punic territory, they asked for official protection from the authorities and, after repairing the ship and replenishing food supplies, they immediately set sail. Carthage agreed to recognize the borders of Rome and respect its people, as well as its allies. The Carthaginians made agreements and, if necessary, made concessions. They also resorted to force in order to prevent rivals from entering the waters of the western Mediterranean, which they considered as their fiefdom, with the exception of the coast of Gaul and the coasts of Spain and Italy adjoining it. They also fought against piracy. Carthage, did not show due attention to coinage. Apparently, there was no own coin here until the 4th century BC. BC, when silver coins were issued, which, if the surviving specimens are considered typical, varied considerably in weight and quality. Perhaps the Carthaginians preferred to use the reliable silver coin of Athens and other states, and most transactions were made through direct barter.

Agriculture
The Carthaginians were skilled farmers. Of the grain crops, wheat and barley were the most important. The wine produced for sale was of average quality. Fragments of ceramic containers found during archaeological excavations in Carthage indicate that wines are more High Quality Carthaginians imported from Greece or from the island of Rhodes. The Carthaginians were famous for their addiction to wine, special laws were passed against drunkenness. In North Africa, olive oil was produced in large quantities, although of poor quality. Figs, pomegranates, almonds, date palms grew here, and ancient authors mention vegetables such as cabbage, peas and artichokes. Horses, mules, cows, sheep and goats were bred in Carthage. The Numidians, who lived to the west, on the territory of modern Algeria, preferred thoroughbred horses and were famous as riders. Most of the African possessions of Carthage were divided among the wealthy Carthaginians, whose large estates were managed on a scientific basis. After the fall of Carthage, the Roman Senate, wishing to attract wealthy people to restore production in some of its lands, ordered that this manual be translated into Latin. As tenants, or sharecroppers, local residents worked - Berbers, and sometimes groups of slaves under the leadership of overseers.

Craft
Carthaginian artisans specialized in the production of cheap products, mostly reproducing Egyptian, Phoenician and Greek designs and destined for marketing in the western Mediterranean, where Carthage captured all the markets. The production of luxury goods - for example, the bright purple paint, commonly known as "Tyrian purple" - is known in the later period, when the Romans ruled North Africa, but it can be considered that it existed before the fall of Carthage. In Morocco and on the island of Djerba, in the best places for obtaining murex, permanent settlements were founded. In accordance with Eastern traditions, the state was a slave owner, using slave labor in arsenals, shipyards or construction.
Some Punic craftsmen were very skilled, especially in carpentry and metal work. A Carthaginian carpenter could use cedar wood for work, the properties of which were known from ancient times by the masters of Ancient Phoenicia, who worked with Lebanese cedar. Due to the constant need for ships, both carpenters and metalworkers were invariably distinguished by a high level of skill. The largest of the handicraft industries was the manufacture of ceramic products. The remains of workshops and pottery kilns, filled with products that were intended for firing, were found. Every Punic settlement in Africa produced pottery, which is found everywhere in the areas that were part of the sphere of Carthage - in Malta, Sicily, Sardinia and Spain.

Today we will talk about the once powerful and richest city - Carthage. Now only picturesque ruins remain of it. Today, Carthage is also a revered city; for example, the residence of the President of Tunisia is located here. However, only memories remain of its former glory. Today, a photo of Carthage in Tunisia is available in all tourist brochures of this country. Therefore, we offer a closer look at this ancient city, its history, culture and location.

Carthage (Tunisia): history

According to legend, this city was founded by the Tyrian princess Elissa, who was forced to flee from her native places after a palace coup. It happened in 814 BC. Elissa and her supporters sailed the sea for a long time until they reached the African coast, where they landed on land in the Gulf of Tunis. The locals were very happy with the foreigners, who brought with them a lot of amazing goods. The fugitive queen wanted to buy a plot of land equal in area to the size of an oxhide. The local leader was very surprised at this proposal and made fun of Elissa for a long time. He was sure that all her people would never be able to fit in such a small space, but he nevertheless agreed to the deal. The next night, Elissa ordered to cut the skin of an ox into thin strips and enclose a fairly large piece of land with them, thus marking her new possessions. It was in this way that the city of Carthage in Tunisia was founded. It is no coincidence that the citadel built in its center is called Birsa, which means “skin” in translation.

By the III century BC, Carthage (Tunisia) became the largest state in the western Mediterranean. Its geographical location allowed it to control all the ships passing by. The Carthaginians were very businesslike, resourceful and warlike. They surrounded themselves with a high fortress wall, and along with the merchant fleet, they also created their own navy, numbering more than two hundred ships. Thus, Carthage turned out to be impregnable both from land and from the sea.

Carthage was not ruled by the Senate, where the best people of their time were elected, as in Rome. Here, all decisions were made by the plebs, that is, the people. However, some scholars are sure that in fact in Carthage the oligarchy (a group of the richest citizens) ruled everything. Be that as it may, along with Rome, this city was the most cultural and developed at that time.

The Carthaginians actively sailed to other countries and subjugated a number of lands in southern Spain, North Africa, Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica. At first they were on good terms with Rome. Both states supported each other in military operations. However, friction soon arose between them over the possession of Sicily, as a result of which the First Punic War began in 264 BC. Military operations went on with varying success. However, in the end, the Carthaginians were defeated. However, they were a stubborn people and were able to recover. This was followed by two more which eventually ended in complete victory for the Romans. So the call of a Roman statesman named Mark Porcius Cato came true, who ended each of his speeches with a phrase that later became winged: “Carthage must be destroyed!” The wars of the Roman Empire destroyed the city of half a million. The surviving inhabitants were sold into slavery, and the ruins of Carthage were sprinkled with salt so that no one would have a desire to settle here. However, after some time, the Romans regretted the complete destruction of the city, because it was possible to get by only with the elimination of its army. Eventually they began to rebuild and repopulate Carthage. The city after some time became the main center of Africa.

In the 2nd century AD, the Carthaginians adopted Christianity. In the VI century, along with the collapse of the Roman Empire, this once majestic city also fell into decay. After only a hundred years, it was captured by the Arabs. The remains of local structures were used by the new rulers of Carthage to build a new city - Tunis. Today Carthage is a suburb of Tunisia. And due to its greatest historical value, it was included in the UNESCO World Heritage List.

Carthage (Tunisia): description and geographical location

So, today this city is one of the main ones. Few tourists who find themselves in this region deprive themselves of the opportunity to touch the ancient history of the once great empires. Carthage on the map of Tunisia is not difficult to find. It is located in the northern part of this state on the shores of the Gulf of Tunis, which is part of the Mediterranean Sea.

Carthage Hotels

The number of rooms in this settlement can be called modest. This is due to the fact that Carthage is a unique place, there is no possibility of building hotels. The only option for travelers who definitely want to stay here is the five-star Villa Didon Hotel with 20 rooms. If you are looking for a more budget option, then it makes sense to choose a hotel in the city of Tunisia or Gammarth.

Excursions

One of the must-see places in Carthage is the Baths of Antoninus. In their size, they were second only to the Roman counterpart. Today, little remains of its former grandeur, but you can appreciate the scale of the building by looking at their model erected here. Not a single excursion to Carthage (Tunisia), as a rule, is complete without a visit to Tophet, which is an open-air burial altar. Here the Phoenicians sacrificed their firstborn in order to appease the gods. In addition, it is worth taking a look at the Roman amphitheater, which accommodated 36 thousand spectators, the remains of a huge aqueduct, as well as the Maalga water cisterns.

shopping

In addition to the standard souvenirs for any country in the form of magnets, key rings, postcards, etc., here merchants offer tourists items that supposedly have historical value: coins, mosaics, pieces of steles and columns, etc. You should not fall for this fishing rod. You can buy such things only as a souvenir, but do not hesitate to bargain.

Cafes and restaurants

On both sides of Habib Bourguiba Avenue, which runs along the coastline, there are a whole host of cafes where you can quench your thirst with cool juice or have lunch. If you want to pamper both your stomach and your eyes, then visit the restaurant in the five-star Villa Dido Hotel, which offers stunning views of the whole of Carthage.

Carthage resubordinates the former Phoenician colonies due to its advantageous geographical position. By the III century BC. e. he becomes the largest state in the west of the Mediterranean Sea, subjugating southern Spain, the coast of North Africa, Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica. After the Punic Wars against Rome, Carthage lost its conquests and was destroyed in 146 BC. e. , its territory was turned into the Roman province of Africa. Julius Caesar offered to establish a colony in his place, which was founded after his death.

In the 420-430s, the control of the Western Roman Empire over the province was lost due to separatist rebellions and the capture by the Germanic tribe of the Vandals, who founded their kingdom with its capital in Carthage. After the conquest of North Africa by the Byzantine Emperor Justinian, the city of Carthage became the capital of the Carthaginian Exarchate. It finally lost its significance after the conquest by the Arabs at the end of the 7th century.

Location

Carthage was founded on a promontory with access to the sea in the north and south. The location of the city made it the leader of the maritime trade in the Mediterranean. All ships crossing the sea inevitably passed between Sicily and the coast of Tunisia.

Two large artificial harbors were dug within the city, one for the navy, capable of holding 220 warships, the other for commercial trade. On the isthmus that separated the harbors, a huge tower was built, surrounded by a wall.

The length of the massive city walls was 37 kilometers, and the height in some places reached 12 meters. Most of the walls were located on the coast, which made the city impregnable from the sea.

The city had a huge cemetery, places of worship, markets, a municipality, towers and a theater. It was divided into four identical residential areas. In the middle of the city stood a high citadel called Birsa. Carthage was one of the largest cities in Hellenistic times (according to some estimates, only Alexandria was larger) and was listed among largest cities antiquities.

State structure

The exact nature of the state structure of Carthage is difficult to determine due to the paucity of sources. However, its political system was described by Aristotle and Polybius.

Power in Carthage was in the hands of the aristocracy, divided into warring agrarian and commercial and industrial factions. The former were supporters of territorial expansion in Africa and opponents of expansion in other regions, which was followed by members of the second group, who tried to rely on the urban population. Public office could be bought.

The highest authority was the council of elders, headed by 10 (later 30) people. At the head of the executive power were two sufets, similar to the Roman consuls. They were elected annually and served mainly as commanders-in-chief of the army and navy. The Carthaginian Senate had legislative power, the number of senators was approximately three hundred, and the office itself was for life. From the composition of the Senate, a committee of 30 members was selected, which conducted all the current work. The popular assembly formally also played a significant role, but in fact it was rarely called upon, in case of disagreement between the sufets and the senate.

Around 450 B.C. e. in order to create a counterbalance to the desire of some clans (especially the Magon clan) to gain full control over the council of elders, a council of judges was created. It consisted of 104 people and was originally supposed to judge the rest of the officials upon the expiration of their term of office, but subsequently dealt with control and trial.

From subordinate tribes and cities, Carthage received supplies of military contingents, payment of a large tax in cash or in kind. Such a system gave Carthage significant financial resources and the opportunity to create a strong army.

Religion

Although the Phoenicians lived scattered throughout the Western Mediterranean, they were united by common beliefs. The Carthaginians inherited the Canaanite religion from their Phoenician ancestors. Every year for centuries, Carthage sent emissaries to Tyre to perform a sacrifice there in the temple of Melqart. In Carthage, the main deities were Baal Hammon, whose name means "master-fireman", and Tanit, identified with Astarte. The most infamous feature of Carthaginian religion was the sacrifice of children. According to Diodorus Siculus, in 310 BC. BC, during the attack of the city, in order to pacify Baal Hammon, the Carthaginians sacrificed more than 200 children from noble families. The Encyclopedia of Religion says: “The sacrifice of an innocent child as a sacrifice of atonement was the greatest act of propitiation for the gods. Apparently, this act was intended to ensure the well-being of both the family and society.”

In 1921, archaeologists discovered a place where several rows of urns were found with the charred remains of both animals (they were sacrificed instead of people) and small children. The place was named Tophet. The burials were under steles, on which the requests that accompanied the sacrifices were recorded. It is estimated that the site holds the remains of over 20,000 children sacrificed in just 200 years.

However, the theory of mass child sacrifice in Carthage has its opponents. In 2010, a group of international archaeologists studied material from 348 funeral urns. It turned out that about half of all buried children were either stillborn (at least 20 percent) or died shortly after birth. Only a few buried children were between five and six years old. Thus, children were cremated and buried in ceremonial urns, regardless of the cause of their death, which was not always violent and took place on the altar. The study also disproved the legend that the Carthaginians sacrificed the first born male baby in every family.

social system

The entire population, according to its rights, was divided into several groups according to ethnicity. The Libyans were in the most difficult situation. The territory of Libya was divided into regions subordinate to the strategists, taxes were very high, their collection was accompanied by all sorts of abuses. This led to frequent uprisings, which were brutally suppressed. Libyans were forcibly recruited into the army - the reliability of such units, of course, was very low. Sicules - Sicilian inhabitants (Greeks?) - constituted another part of the population; their rights in the field of political administration were limited by the "Sidon law" (its content is unknown). The Siculi, however, enjoyed freedom of trade. Natives of the Phoenician cities annexed to Carthage enjoyed full civil rights, and the rest of the population (freedmen, settlers - in a word, not Phoenicians) is similar to the Siculs - "Sidon law".

In order to avoid popular unrest, periodically the poorest population was deported to subject areas.

This state differed from neighboring Rome, which gave the Italians a part of autonomy and freedom from paying regular taxes.

The Carthaginians managed the dependent territories differently than the Romans. The latter, as we have seen, provided the conquered population of Italy with a certain degree of internal independence and exempted them from paying any regular taxes. The Carthaginian government acted otherwise.

Economy

The city lay in the northeastern part of present-day Tunisia, in the depths of a large bay, not far from the mouth of the river. Bagrad, which irrigated the fertile plain. Sea routes between the eastern and western Mediterranean passed here, Carthage became the center for the exchange of handicrafts from the East for raw materials from the West and South. Carthaginian merchants traded in purple of their own production, ivory and slaves from Sudan, ostrich feathers and golden sand from central Africa. In exchange came silver and salted fish from Spain, bread from Sardinia, olive oil and Greek art from Sicily. From Egypt and Phoenicia, carpets, ceramics, enamel and glass beads went to Carthage, for which Carthaginian merchants exchanged valuable raw materials from the natives.

In addition to trade, agriculture played an important role in the economy of the city-state. On the fertile plain of Bagrad lay large estates of Carthaginian landowners, served by slaves and the local Libyan population, who were dependent on the serf type. Small free landownership, apparently, did not play any noticeable role in Carthage. The work of the Carthaginian Mago on agriculture in 28 books was subsequently translated into Latin by order of the Roman Senate.

Carthaginian merchants were constantly looking for new markets. Approximately 480 BC. e. The navigator Himilcon landed in Britain on the coast of the present-day Cornwall peninsula, which is rich in tin. And 30 years later, Gannon, a descendant of an influential Carthaginian family, led an expedition of 60 ships, on which there were 30,000 men and women. People were landed in different parts of the coast to establish new colonies. It is possible that, having sailed through the Strait of Gibraltar and further south along the western coast of Africa, Hanno reached the Gulf of Guinea and even the shores of modern Cameroon.

The enterprise and business acumen of its inhabitants helped Carthage become, admittedly, the richest city in the ancient world. "At the beginning of the 3rd century BC. e. thanks to technology, fleet and trade ... the city moved to the forefront, "says the book" Carthage "(" Carthage "). The Greek historian Appian wrote about the Carthaginians: " Their military power became equal to that of the Hellenes, but in terms of wealth it was in second place after the Persian".

Army

The army of Carthage was mainly mercenary, although there was also a city militia. The basis of the infantry was Spanish, African, Greek, Gallic mercenaries, the Carthaginian aristocracy served in the "sacred detachment" - heavily armed cavalry. The mercenary cavalry consisted of the Numidians, who were considered the most skilled horsemen in antiquity, and the Iberians. The Iberians were also considered good warriors - Balearic slingers and cetrati (caetrati - correlated with Greek peltasts) formed light infantry, scutatii (armed with a spear, dart and bronze shell) - heavy, Spanish heavy cavalry (armed with swords) was also very much appreciated. The tribes of the Celtiberians used the weapons of the Gauls - long two-edged swords. An important role was also played by elephants, which were kept in the amount of about 300. The “technical” equipment of the army was also high (catapults, ballistas, etc.). In general, the composition of the Punic army was similar to the armies of the Hellenistic states. At the head of the army was the commander-in-chief, elected by the council of elders, but by the end of the existence of the state, this election was also carried out by the army, which indicates monarchical tendencies.

If necessary, the state could mobilize a fleet of several hundred large five-deck ships, equipped and armed with the latest Hellenistic naval technology and equipped with an experienced crew.

Story

Carthage was founded by people from the Phoenician city of Tyre at the end of the 9th century BC. e. According to legend, the city was founded by the widow of a Phoenician king named Dido (daughter of the Tyrian king Karton). She promised the local tribe to pay a gem for a piece of land bounded by the skin of a bull, but on the condition that the choice of location was left to her. After the deal was made, the colonists chose a convenient place for the city, ringing it with narrow belts made from a single oxhide. In the first Spanish chronicle Estoria de España (Spanish)Russian ” (or ), prepared by King Alfonso X on the basis of Latin sources, it is reported that the word “ cartoon"In that language meant skin (skin), and that's why she named the city Cartago". The same book also gives details of subsequent colonization.

The authenticity of the legend is unknown, but it seems unlikely that without the favorable attitude of the natives, a handful of settlers could gain a foothold in the territory allotted to them and found a city there. In addition, there is reason to believe that the settlers were representatives of a political party that was not pleasing in their homeland, and they hardly had to rely on the support of the mother country. According to Herodotus, Justin, and Ovid, relations between Carthage and the local population deteriorated soon after the city was founded. Giarb, the leader of the Makaktan tribe, under the threat of war, demanded the hand of Queen Dido, but she preferred death to marriage. The war, however, began and was not in favor of the Carthaginians. According to Ovid, Giarbus even captured the city and held it for several years.

The favorable geographical position allowed Carthage to become the largest city in the Western Mediterranean (the population reached 700,000 people), unite the rest of the Phoenician colonies in North Africa and Spain and conduct extensive conquests and colonization.

6th century BC e.

In the 6th century, the Greeks founded the colony of Massalia and made an alliance with Tartessos. Initially, the Punians were defeated, but Magon I reformed the army (now mercenaries became the basis of the troops), an alliance was concluded with the Etruscans, and in 537 BC. e. in the battle of Alalia, the Greeks were defeated. Soon Tartessos was destroyed and all the Phoenician cities of Spain were annexed.

The main source of wealth was trade - Carthaginian merchants traded in Egypt, Italy, Spain, the Black and Red Seas - and agriculture, based on the widespread use of slave labor. There was a strict regulation of trade - Carthage sought to monopolize trade; to this end, all subjects were obliged to trade only through the mediation of Carthaginian merchants. This brought huge incomes, but greatly hampered the development of subject territories and contributed to the growth of separatist sentiments. During the Greco-Persian wars, Carthage was in alliance with Persia, together with the Etruscans, an attempt was made to completely capture Sicily. But after the defeat at the Battle of Himera (480 BC) by a coalition of Greek city-states, the struggle was suspended for several decades. The main opponent of the Punians was Syracuse (by 400 BC, this state was at the height of its power and sought to open trade in the west, completely captured by Carthage), the war continued at intervals for almost a hundred years (394-306 BC) and ended with the almost complete conquest of Sicily by the Punians.

3rd century BC e.

Today it is a suburb of Tunisia and an object for tourist pilgrimage.

Write a review on the article "Carthage"

Notes

Bibliography

Sources

• Mark Junian Justin. Epitoma of Pompei Trogus' History of Philip = Epitoma Historiarum Philippicarum Pompei Trogi / Ed. M. Grabar-Passek. Per. from Latin: A. Dekonsky, Moses of Riga. - St. Petersburg. : From St. Petersburg University, 2005. - 496 p. - ISBN 5-288-03708-6.

Research

• Asheri D. Carthaginians and Greeks // Cambridge History of the Ancient World. Vol. IV: Persia, Greece and the Western Mediterranean c. 525-479 BC e. M., 2011. S. 875-922.
• Volkov A.V. Mysteries of Phoenicia. - M.: Veche, 2004. - 320 p. - Series "Mysterious places of the Earth". - ISBN 5-9533-0271-1
• Volkov A.V. Carthage. White empire of black Africa. - M.: Veche, 2004. - 320 p. - Series "Mysterious places of the Earth". - ISBN 5-9533-0416-1
• Dready Edie. Carthage and the Punic World / Per. N. Ozerskaya. - M.: Veche, 2008. - 400 p. - Series "Guides of Civilizations". - ISBN 978-5-9533-3781-6
• Zelinsky F.F. Roman Republic / Per. from the floor N. A. Papchinsky. - St. Petersburg: Aleteyya, 2002. - 448 p. - Series "Antique Library".
• Levitsky G. Rome and Carthage. - M.: NTs "ENAS", 2010. - 240 p. - A series of "Cultural enlightenment". - ISBN 978-5-93196-970-1
• Miles Richard. Carthage must be destroyed. - M.: LLC "AST", 2014. - 576 p. - Series "Pages of History". - ISBN 9785170844135
• Markow Glenn. Phoenicians / Per. from English. K. Savelyeva. - M.: Grand-Fair, 2006. - 328 p.
• Revyako K. A. Punic Wars. - Minsk, 1985.
• Sansone Vito. Stones to be saved / Per. from Italian. A. A. Bangersky. - M.: Thought 1986. - 236 p.
• Ur-Myedan ​​Madeleine. Carthage / Per. A. Yablokova. - M.: All world, 2003. - 144 p. - Series "The whole world of knowledge". - ISBN 5-7777-0219-8
• Harden Donald. Phoenicians. Founders of Carthage. - M.: Tsentrpoligraf. 2004. - 264 p. - A series of "Mysteries of ancient civilizations." - ISBN 5-9524-1418-4
• Tsirkin Yu. B. Phoenician culture in Spain. - M.: Nauka, GRVL, 1976. - 248 p.: ill. - Series "Culture of the peoples of the East".
• Tsirkin Yu. B. Carthage and its culture. - M.: Nauka, GRVL, 1986. - 288 p.: ill. - Series "Culture of the peoples of the East".
• Tsirkin Yu. B. From Canaan to Carthage. - M.: LLC "AST", 2001. - 528 p.
• Shifman I. Sh. Phoenician sailors. - M.: Nauka, GRVL, 1965. - 84 p.: ill. - Series "In the footsteps of the disappeared cultures of the East."
• Shifman I. Sh. Carthage. - St. Petersburg: Publishing House of St. Petersburg State University, 2006. - 520 p. - ISBN 5-288-03714-0
• Huss W. Geschichte der Karthager. Munich, 1985.

Links

• // Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron: in 86 volumes (82 volumes and 4 additional). - St. Petersburg. , 1890-1907.

Cities Personalities Language and writing Religion

Proto-Libyans The oldest references Lower Egypt and areas to the west Antiquity Lower Egypt and areas to the west Libya (as a region) Inner Libya Numidia Carthaginian region / Africa Mauretania mixed population North Africa 1 They also lived in the south of Marmarika and the east of Sirtica. 2 The tribe was originally considered Numidian, but later their land was ceded to Mauretania.

Parties Related events

An excerpt characterizing Carthage

The princess was lying in an armchair, m lle Bourienne was rubbing her temples. Princess Mary, supporting her daughter-in-law, with tearful beautiful eyes, was still looking at the door through which Prince Andrei went out, and baptized him. From the study were heard, like shots, the often repeated angry sounds of the old man blowing his nose. As soon as Prince Andrei left, the door of the office quickly opened and a stern figure of an old man in a white coat looked out.
- Left? Well, good! he said, looking angrily at the insensible little princess, shook his head reproachfully and slammed the door.

In October 1805, Russian troops occupied the villages and cities of the Archduchy of Austria, and more new regiments came from Russia and, weighing down the inhabitants with billeting, were located near the Braunau fortress. In Braunau was the main apartment of the commander-in-chief Kutuzov.
On October 11, 1805, one of the infantry regiments that had just arrived at Braunau, waiting for the review of the commander-in-chief, stood half a mile from the city. Despite the non-Russian terrain and situation (orchards, stone fences, tiled roofs, mountains visible in the distance), the non-Russian people, who looked at the soldiers with curiosity, the regiment had exactly the same appearance as any Russian regiment preparing for a show somewhere in the middle of Russia.
In the evening, on the last crossing, an order was received that the commander-in-chief would watch the regiment on the march. Although the words of the order seemed unclear to the regimental commander, and the question arose of how to understand the words of the order: in marching uniform or not? in the council of battalion commanders, it was decided to present the regiment in full dress on the grounds that it is always better to exchange bows than not to bow. And the soldiers, after a thirty-verst march, did not close their eyes, they repaired and cleaned themselves all night; adjutants and company officers counted, expelled; and by morning the regiment, instead of the sprawling disorderly crowd that it had been the day before on the last march, represented a slender mass of 2,000 people, each of whom knew his place, his business, and of whom each button and strap was in its place and shone with cleanliness. . Not only the outside was in good order, but if the commander-in-chief had been pleased to look under the uniforms, then on each he would have seen an equally clean shirt and in each knapsack he would have found a legal number of things, “an awl and a soap,” as the soldiers say. There was only one circumstance about which no one could be calm. It was shoes. More than half of the people had their boots broken. But this shortcoming did not come from the fault of the regimental commander, since, despite repeated demands, the goods from the Austrian department were not released to him, and the regiment traveled a thousand miles.
The regimental commander was an elderly, sanguine general with graying eyebrows and sideburns, thick and broad more from chest to back than from one shoulder to the other. He was wearing a new, brand-new uniform with crumpled folds, and thick golden epaulettes, which, as it were, raised his stout shoulders upwards rather than downwards. The regimental commander looked like a man happily doing one of the most solemn deeds of life. He paced in front of the front and, as he walked, trembled at every step, slightly bending his back. It was evident that the regimental commander was admiring his regiment, happy with them, that all his mental strength was occupied only by the regiment; but, in spite of this, his trembling gait seemed to say that, in addition to military interests, the interests of social life and the female gender also occupy a considerable place in his soul.
“Well, father Mikhailo Mitrich,” he turned to one battalion commander (the battalion commander leaned forward smiling; it was clear that they were happy), “I got nuts this night. However, it seems, nothing, the regiment is not bad ... Eh?
The battalion commander understood the humorous irony and laughed.
- And in the Tsaritsyn Meadow they would not have driven out of the field.
- What? the commander said.
At this time, on the road from the city, along which the machinations were placed, two horsemen appeared. They were the adjutant and a Cossack riding behind.
The adjutant was sent from the main headquarters to confirm to the regimental commander what was unclear in yesterday's order, namely, that the commander-in-chief wanted to see the regiment in exactly the position in which he walked - in overcoats, in covers and without any preparations.
A member of the Hofkriegsrat from Vienna arrived at Kutuzov the day before, with proposals and demands to join the army of Archduke Ferdinand and Mack as soon as possible, and Kutuzov, not considering this connection advantageous, among other evidence in favor of his opinion, intended to show the Austrian general that sad situation in which troops came from Russia. For this purpose, he wanted to go out to meet the regiment, so that the worse the position of the regiment, the more pleasant it would be for the commander in chief. Although the adjutant did not know these details, however, he conveyed to the regimental commander the indispensable demand of the commander-in-chief that people be in overcoats and covers, and that otherwise the commander-in-chief would be dissatisfied. After hearing these words, the regimental commander lowered his head, silently shrugged his shoulders and spread his arms with a sanguine gesture.
- Done business! he said. - So I told you, Mikhailo Mitrich, that on a campaign, so in overcoats, - he turned with a reproach to the battalion commander. – Oh, my God! he added, and stepped forward resolutely. - Gentlemen, company commanders! he called out in a voice familiar to command. - Feldwebels! ... Will they come soon? he turned to the visiting adjutant with an expression of respectful courtesy, apparently referring to the person he was talking about.
- In an hour, I think.
- Shall we change clothes?
"I don't know, General...
The regimental commander himself went up to the ranks and ordered them to change into their greatcoats again. The company commanders fled to their companies, the sergeants began to fuss (the overcoats were not entirely in order) and at the same instant swayed, stretched out and the previously regular, silent quadrangles hummed with a voice. Soldiers ran and ran up from all sides, tossed them back with their shoulders, dragged knapsacks over their heads, took off their overcoats and, raising their hands high, pulled them into their sleeves.
Half an hour later everything returned to its former order, only the quadrangles turned gray from black. The regimental commander, again with a trembling gait, stepped forward of the regiment and looked at it from afar.
- What else is that? What's this! he shouted, stopping. - Commander of the 3rd company! ..
- Commander of the 3rd company to the general! the commander to the general, the 3rd company to the commander! ... - voices were heard from the ranks, and the adjutant ran to look for the hesitant officer.
When the sounds of zealous voices, distorting, shouting already “the general in the 3rd company”, reached their destination, the required officer appeared from behind the company and, although the man was already elderly and not in the habit of running, awkwardly clinging to his socks, trotted towards the general. The captain's face expressed the anxiety of a schoolboy who is told to say a lesson he has not learned. There were spots on the red (obviously from intemperance) nose, and the mouth did not find position. The regimental commander examined the captain from head to toe as he approached breathlessly, holding his step as he approached.
- You will soon dress people in sundresses! What's this? - shouted the regimental commander, pushing his lower jaw and pointing in the ranks of the 3rd company at a soldier in an overcoat of the color of factory cloth, which differed from other overcoats. - Where were you yourself? The commander-in-chief is expected, and you move away from your place? Eh?... I’ll teach you how to dress people in Cossacks for a review!... Eh?...
The company commander, without taking his eyes off his commander, pressed his two fingers more and more to his visor, as if in this pressing alone he now saw his salvation.
- Well, why are you silent? Who do you have there in the Hungarian dressed up? - strictly joked the regimental commander.
- Your Excellency…
- Well, "your excellency"? Your Excellency! Your Excellency! And what your Excellency - no one knows.
- Your Excellency, this is Dolokhov, demoted ... - the captain said quietly.
- That he was a field marshal, or something, demoted or a soldier? And a soldier should be dressed like everyone else, in uniform.
“Your Excellency, you yourself allowed him to march.
- Allowed? Allowed? That's how you always are, young people,” said the regimental commander, cooling down somewhat. - Allowed? You say something, and you and ... - The regimental commander paused. - You say something, and you and ... - What? he said, getting irritated again. - Please dress people decently ...
And the regimental commander, looking back at the adjutant, with his shuddering gait, went to the regiment. It was evident that he himself liked his irritation, and that, having walked up and down the regiment, he wanted to find another pretext for his anger. Having cut off one officer for an uncleaned badge, another for an irregular row, he approached the 3rd company.
- How are you standing? Where is the leg? Where is the leg? - shouted the regimental commander with an expression of suffering in his voice, another five people did not reach Dolokhov, dressed in a bluish overcoat.
Dolokhov slowly straightened his bent leg and straight, with his bright and insolent look, looked into the general's face.
Why the blue overcoat? Down with… Feldwebel! Change his clothes ... rubbish ... - He did not have time to finish.
“General, I am obliged to carry out orders, but I am not obliged to endure ...” Dolokhov said hastily.
- Do not talk in the front! ... Do not talk, do not talk! ...
“I am not obliged to endure insults,” Dolokhov finished loudly, sonorously.
The eyes of the general and the soldier met. The General fell silent, angrily pulling down his tight scarf.
“If you please, change your clothes, please,” he said, walking away.

- It's coming! shouted the machinist at that time.
The regimental commander blushed, ran up to the horse, with trembling hands took hold of the stirrup, flung the body over, recovered himself, drew his sword, and with a happy, resolute face, with his mouth open to one side, prepared to shout. The regiment started like a recovering bird and froze.
- Smir r r na! shouted the regimental commander in a soul-shattering voice, joyful for himself, strict in relation to the regiment and friendly in relation to the approaching chief.
Along the wide, tree-lined, high, highwayless road, with a slight rattle of springs, a tall blue Viennese carriage rode in a train at a fast trot. A retinue and a convoy of Croats galloped behind the carriage. Near Kutuzov sat an Austrian general in a strange, among black Russians, white uniform. The carriage stopped at the regiment. Kutuzov and the Austrian general were quietly talking about something, and Kutuzov smiled slightly, while, stepping heavily, he lowered his foot from the footboard, as if there weren’t those 2,000 people who were looking at him and the regimental commander without breathing .
There was a shout of the command, again the regiment, ringing, trembled, making guard. In the dead silence, the weak voice of the commander-in-chief was heard. The regiment barked: “We wish you good health, your lordship!” And again everything froze. At first, Kutuzov stood in one place while the regiment moved; then Kutuzov, next to the white general, on foot, accompanied by his retinue, began to walk through the ranks.
By the way the regimental commander saluted the commander-in-chief, glaring at him, stretching out and getting up, how, leaning forward, walked behind the generals along the ranks, barely keeping a trembling movement, how he jumped at every word and movement of the commander-in-chief, it was clear that he was fulfilling his duties subordinate with even greater pleasure than the duties of a boss. The regiment, thanks to the severity and diligence of the regimental commander, was in excellent condition compared to others who came at the same time to Braunau. There were only 217 retarded and sick people. Everything was fine, except for the shoes.
Kutuzov walked through the ranks, occasionally stopping and saying a few kind words to the officers, whom he knew from the Turkish war, and sometimes to the soldiers. Glancing at the shoes, he shook his head sadly several times and pointed at them to the Austrian general with such an expression that he seemed not to reproach anyone for this, but he could not help but see how bad it was. The regimental commander each time ran ahead, fearing to miss the word of the commander-in-chief regarding the regiment. Behind Kutuzov, at such a distance that any weakly spoken word could be heard, walked a man of 20 retinues. The gentlemen of the retinues talked among themselves and sometimes laughed. Closest behind the commander-in-chief was a handsome adjutant. It was Prince Bolkonsky. Beside him walked his comrade Nesvitsky, a tall staff officer, extremely stout, with a kind and smiling handsome face and moist eyes; Nesvitsky could hardly restrain himself from laughing, aroused by the blackish hussar officer walking beside him. The hussar officer, without smiling, without changing the expression of his fixed eyes, looked with a serious face at the back of the regimental commander and mimicked his every movement. Every time the regimental commander shuddered and leaned forward, in exactly the same way, exactly in exactly the same way, the hussar officer shuddered and leaned forward. Nesvitsky laughed and pushed the others to look at the funny man.
Kutuzov walked slowly and listlessly past a thousand eyes that rolled out of their sockets, following the boss. Having leveled with the 3rd company, he suddenly stopped. The retinue, not foreseeing this stop, involuntarily advanced on him.
- Ah, Timokhin! - said the commander-in-chief, recognizing the captain with a red nose, who suffered for a blue overcoat.
It seemed that it was impossible to stretch more than Timokhin stretched, while the regimental commander reprimanded him. But at that moment the commander-in-chief addressed him, the captain drew himself up so that it seemed that if the commander-in-chief had looked at him for a little more time, the captain would not have been able to stand it; and therefore Kutuzov, apparently understanding his position and wishing, on the contrary, all the best for the captain, hastily turned away. A barely perceptible smile ran across Kutuzov's plump, wounded face.
“Another Izmaylovsky comrade,” he said. "Brave officer!" Are you happy with it? Kutuzov asked the regimental commander.
And the regimental commander, as if reflected in a mirror, invisibly to himself, in the hussar officer, shuddered, went forward and answered:
“Very pleased, Your Excellency.
“We are all not without weaknesses,” said Kutuzov, smiling and moving away from him. “He had an attachment to Bacchus.
The regimental commander was afraid that he was not to blame for this, and did not answer. The officer at that moment noticed the captain's face with a red nose and a tucked-up stomach, and mimicked his face and posture so similarly that Nesvitsky could not help laughing.
Kutuzov turned around. It was evident that the officer could control his face as he wanted: at the moment Kutuzov turned around, the officer managed to make a grimace, and after that take on the most serious, respectful and innocent expression.
The third company was the last, and Kutuzov thought, apparently remembering something. Prince Andrei stepped out of the retinue and quietly said in French:
- You ordered to be reminded of the demoted Dolokhov in this regiment.
- Where is Dolokhov? Kutuzov asked.
Dolokhov, already dressed in a soldier's gray overcoat, did not wait to be called. The slender figure of a blond soldier with clear blue eyes stepped out from the front. He approached the commander-in-chief and made a guard.
– Claim? - Frowning slightly, asked Kutuzov.
“This is Dolokhov,” said Prince Andrei.
– A! Kutuzov said. – I hope this lesson will correct you, serve well. The Emperor is merciful. And I won't forget you if you deserve it.
Clear blue eyes looked at the commander-in-chief as boldly as they did at the regimental commander, as if by their expression they were tearing away the veil of conventionality that separated the commander-in-chief so far from the soldier.
“I ask you one thing, Your Excellency,” he said in his resonant, firm, unhurried voice. “I ask you to give me a chance to make amends for my guilt and prove my devotion to the emperor and Russia.
Kutuzov turned away. The same smile of his eyes flashed across his face as at the time when he turned away from Captain Timokhin. He turned away and grimaced, as if he wanted to express by this that everything that Dolokhov told him, and everything that he could tell him, he had known for a long, long time that all this had already bored him and that all this was not at all what he needed. . He turned and walked towards the carriage.
The regiment sorted out in companies and headed for the assigned apartments not far from Braunau, where they hoped to put on shoes, dress and rest after difficult transitions.
- You do not pretend to me, Prokhor Ignatich? - said the regimental commander, circling the 3rd company moving towards the place and driving up to Captain Timokhin, who was walking in front of it. The face of the regimental commander, after a happily departed review, expressed irrepressible joy. - The royal service ... you can’t ... another time you’ll cut off at the front ... I’ll be the first to apologize, you know me ... Thank you very much! And he held out his hand to the commander.
“Excuse me, General, do I dare!” - the captain answered, turning red with his nose, smiling and revealing with a smile the lack of two front teeth, knocked out by a butt near Ishmael.
- Yes, tell Mr. Dolokhov that I will not forget him, so that he is calm. Yes, please tell me, I kept wanting to ask, what is he, how is he behaving? And everything...
“He is very serviceable in his service, Your Excellency ... but the carakhter ...” said Timokhin.
- And what, what is the character? asked the regimental commander.
“He finds, Your Excellency, for days,” said the captain, “he is smart, and learned, and kind. And that's a beast. In Poland, he killed a Jew, if you please know ...
- Well, yes, well, yes, - said the regimental commander, - you still have to feel sorry for the young man in misfortune. After all, great connections ... So you ...
“I’m listening, Your Excellency,” Timokhin said, with a smile making it feel that he understood the wishes of the boss.
- Yes Yes.
The regimental commander found Dolokhov in the ranks and reined in his horse.
“Before the first case, epaulettes,” he told him.
Dolokhov looked around, said nothing and did not change the expression of his mockingly smiling mouth.
“Well, that’s good,” continued the regimental commander. “People get a glass of vodka from me,” he added, so that the soldiers could hear. – Thank you all! God bless! - And he, having overtaken a company, drove up to another.
“Well, he really is a good man; You can serve with him,” Timokhin subaltern said to the officer walking beside him.
- One word, red! ... (the regimental commander was nicknamed the red king) - the subaltern officer said, laughing.
The happy mood of the authorities after the review passed to the soldiers. Rota was having fun. Soldiers' voices were talking from all sides.
- How did they say, Kutuzov crooked, about one eye?
- But no! Totally crooked.
- Not ... brother, more big-eyed than you. Boots and collars - looked around everything ...
- How does he, my brother, look at my feet ... well! Think…
- And the other is an Austrian, he was with him, as if smeared with chalk. Like flour, white. I'm tea, how they clean ammunition!
- What, Fedeshow! ... he said, perhaps, when the guards begin, did you stand closer? They said everything, Bunaparte himself is standing in Brunov.
- Bunaparte stands! you lie, fool! What does not know! Now the Prussian is in revolt. The Austrian, therefore, pacifies him. As soon as he reconciles, then war will open with Bounaparte. And then, he says, in Brunov, Bunaparte is standing! It's obvious that he's an idiot. You listen more.
“Look, damn tenants! The fifth company, look, is already turning into the village, they will cook porridge, and we will not reach the place yet.
- Give me a cracker, damn it.
“Did you give tobacco yesterday?” That's it, brother. Well, on, God is with you.
- If only they made a halt, otherwise you won’t eat another five miles of proprem.
- It was nice how the Germans gave us strollers. You go, know: it's important!
- And here, brother, the people went completely frantic. There everything seemed to be a Pole, everything was of the Russian crown; and now, brother, a solid German has gone.
- Songwriters ahead! - I heard the cry of the captain.
And twenty people ran out in front of the company from different ranks. The drummer sings turned around to face the songbooks, and, waving his hand, began a drawn-out soldier's song, beginning: "Isn't it dawn, the sun was breaking up ..." and ending with the words: "That, brothers, will be glory to us with Kamensky father ..." in Turkey and was now sung in Austria, only with the change that in place of "Kamensky father" the words were inserted: "Kutuzov's father."
Tearing off these last words like a soldier and waving his arms as if he were throwing something on the ground, the drummer, a dry and handsome soldier of about forty, sternly looked around at the songwriter soldiers and closed his eyes. Then, making sure that all eyes were fixed on him, he seemed to carefully lift with both hands some invisible, precious thing above his head, held it like that for several seconds, and suddenly threw it desperately:
Oh, you, my canopy, my canopy!
“Canopy my new…”, twenty voices picked up, and the spoonman, despite the heaviness of the ammunition, briskly jumped forward and walked backwards in front of the company, moving his shoulders and threatening someone with spoons. The soldiers, swinging their arms to the beat of the song, walked with a spacious step, involuntarily hitting the leg. Behind the company came the sounds of wheels, the crunch of springs and the clatter of horses.
Kutuzov with his retinue was returning to the city. The Commander-in-Chief signaled that the people should continue to walk freely, and pleasure was expressed on his face and on all the faces of his retinue at the sound of the song, at the sight of the dancing soldier and the merrily and briskly marching soldiers of the company. In the second row, from the right flank, from which the carriage overtook the companies, a blue-eyed soldier, Dolokhov, involuntarily caught his eye, who walked especially briskly and gracefully to the beat of the song and looked at the faces of the passers-by with such an expression as if he was sorry for everyone who did not go at this time with a company. A hussar cornet from Kutuzov's retinue, mimicking the regimental commander, lagged behind the carriage and drove up to Dolokhov.
The hussar cornet Zherkov at one time in St. Petersburg belonged to that violent society led by Dolokhov. Zherkov met Dolokhov abroad as a soldier, but did not consider it necessary to recognize him. Now, after Kutuzov's conversation with the demoted, he turned to him with the joy of an old friend:
- Dear friend, how are you? - he said at the sound of the song, equalizing the step of his horse with the step of the company.
- I am like? - answered Dolokhov coldly, - as you can see.
The lively song attached particular importance to the tone of cheeky gaiety with which Zherkov spoke, and the deliberate coldness of Dolokhov's answers.
- So, how do you get along with the authorities? Zherkov asked.
Nothing, good people. How did you get into the headquarters?
- Seconded, I'm on duty.
They were silent.
“I let the falcon out of my right sleeve,” said the song, involuntarily arousing a cheerful, cheerful feeling. Their conversation would probably have been different if they had not spoken at the sound of a song.
- What is true, the Austrians were beaten? Dolokhov asked.
“The devil knows, they say.
“I am glad,” Dolokhov answered briefly and clearly, as the song demanded.
- Well, come to us when in the evening, the pharaoh will pawn, - said Zherkov.
Or do you have a lot of money?
- Come.
- It is forbidden. He gave a vow. I don't drink or play until it's done.
Well, before the first thing...
- You'll see it there.
Again they were silent.
“Come in, if you need anything, everyone at headquarters will help…” said Zherkov.
Dolokhov chuckled.
“You better not worry. What I need, I won't ask, I'll take it myself.
"Yeah, well, I'm so...
- Well, so am I.
- Goodbye.
- Be healthy…
... and high and far,
On the home side...
Zherkov touched his horse with his spurs, which three times, getting excited, kicked, not knowing where to start, coped and galloped, overtaking the company and catching up with the carriage, also in time with the song.

Returning from the review, Kutuzov, accompanied by an Austrian general, went to his office and, calling the adjutant, ordered to give himself some papers relating to the condition of the incoming troops, and letters received from Archduke Ferdinand, who commanded the forward army. Prince Andrei Bolkonsky with the required papers entered the office of the commander in chief. In front of the plan laid out on the table sat Kutuzov and an Austrian member of the Hofkriegsrat.
“Ah ...” said Kutuzov, looking back at Bolkonsky, as if by this word inviting the adjutant to wait, and continued the conversation begun in French.
“I only say one thing, General,” Kutuzov said with a pleasant elegance of expression and intonation, forcing one to listen to every leisurely spoken word. It was evident that Kutuzov listened to himself with pleasure. - I only say one thing, General, that if the matter depended on my personal desire, then the will of His Majesty Emperor Franz would have been fulfilled long ago. I would have joined the Archduke long ago. And believe my honor, that for me personally to transfer the higher command of the army more than I am to a knowledgeable and skillful general, such as Austria is so plentiful, and to lay down all this heavy responsibility for me personally would be a joy. But circumstances are stronger than us, general.
And Kutuzov smiled with such an expression as if he were saying: “You have every right not to believe me, and even I don’t care whether you believe me or not, but you have no reason to tell me this. And that's the whole point."
The Austrian general looked dissatisfied, but could not answer Kutuzov in the same tone.
“On the contrary,” he said in a grouchy and angry tone, so contrary to the flattering meaning of the words spoken, “on the contrary, Your Excellency’s participation in the common cause is highly valued by His Majesty; but we believe that a real slowdown deprives the glorious Russian troops and their commanders of those laurels that they are accustomed to reap in battles, ”he finished the apparently prepared phrase.
Kutuzov bowed without changing his smile.
- And I am so convinced and, based on the last letter that His Highness Archduke Ferdinand honored me, I assume that the Austrian troops, under the command of such a skilled assistant as General Mack, have now already won a decisive victory and no longer need our help, - Kutuzov said.
The general frowned. Although there was no positive news of the defeat of the Austrians, there were too many circumstances that confirmed the general unfavorable rumors; and therefore Kutuzov's assumption about the victory of the Austrians was very similar to a mockery. But Kutuzov smiled meekly, still with the same expression that said that he had the right to assume this. Indeed, the last letter he received from Mack's army informed him of the victory and the most advantageous strategic position of the army.
“Give me this letter here,” said Kutuzov, turning to Prince Andrei. - Here you are, if you want to see it. - And Kutuzov, with a mocking smile on the ends of his lips, read the following passage from the letter of Archduke Ferdinand from the German-Austrian general: “Wir haben vollkommen zusammengehaltene Krafte, nahe an 70,000 Mann, um den Feind, wenn er den Lech passirte, angreifen und schlagen zu konnen. Wir konnen, da wir Meister von Ulm sind, den Vortheil, auch von beiden Uferien der Donau Meister zu bleiben, nicht verlieren; mithin auch jeden Augenblick, wenn der Feind den Lech nicht passirte, die Donau ubersetzen, uns auf seine Communikations Linie werfen, die Donau unterhalb repassiren und dem Feinde, wenn er sich gegen unsere treue Allirte mit ganzer Macht wenden wollte, seine Absicht alabald vereitel ien. Wir werden auf solche Weise den Zeitpunkt, wo die Kaiserlich Ruseische Armee ausgerustet sein wird, muthig entgegenharren, und sodann leicht gemeinschaftlich die Moglichkeit finden, dem Feinde das Schicksal zuzubereiten, so er verdient.” [We have a fully concentrated force, about 70,000 people, so that we can attack and defeat the enemy if he crosses the Lech. Since we already own Ulm, we can retain the advantage of commanding both banks of the Danube, therefore, every minute, if the enemy does not cross the Lech, cross the Danube, rush to his communication line, cross the Danube lower and the enemy, if he decides to turn all his strength on our faithful allies, to prevent his intention from being fulfilled. Thus, we will cheerfully await the time when the imperial Russian army is completely ready, and then together we will easily find an opportunity to prepare the enemy for the fate he deserves.
Kutuzov sighed heavily, having finished this period, and carefully and affectionately looked at the member of the Hofkriegsrat.
“But you know, Your Excellency, the wise rule of assuming the worst,” said the Austrian general, apparently wanting to end the jokes and get down to business.
He glanced involuntarily at the adjutant.
“Excuse me, General,” Kutuzov interrupted him and also turned to Prince Andrei. - That's what, my dear, you take all the reports from our scouts from Kozlovsky. Here are two letters from Count Nostitz, here is a letter from His Highness Archduke Ferdinand, here's another,” he said, handing him some papers. - And from all this, cleanly, in French, make a memorandum, a note, for the visibility of all the news that we had about the actions of the Austrian army. Well, then, and present to his Excellency.
Prince Andrei bowed his head as a sign that he understood from the first words not only what was said, but also what Kutuzov would like to tell him. He collected the papers, and, giving a general bow, quietly walking along the carpet, went out into the waiting room.
Despite the fact that not much time has passed since Prince Andrei left Russia, he has changed a lot during this time. In the expression of his face, in his movements, in his gait, there was almost no noticeable former pretense, fatigue and laziness; he had the appearance of a man who has no time to think about the impression he makes on others, and is busy with pleasant and interesting business. His face expressed more satisfaction with himself and those around him; his smile and look were more cheerful and attractive.
Kutuzov, whom he caught up with back in Poland, received him very affectionately, promised him not to forget him, distinguished him from other adjutants, took him with him to Vienna and gave him more serious assignments. From Vienna, Kutuzov wrote to his old comrade, the father of Prince Andrei:
“Your son,” he wrote, “gives hope to be an officer who excels in his studies, firmness and diligence. I consider myself fortunate to have such a subordinate at hand.”
At Kutuzov's headquarters, among his comrades, and in the army in general, Prince Andrei, as well as in St. Petersburg society, had two completely opposite reputations.
Some, a minority, recognized Prince Andrei as something special from themselves and from all other people, expected great success from him, listened to him, admired him and imitated him; and with these people, Prince Andrei was simple and pleasant. Others, the majority, did not like Prince Andrei, they considered him an inflated, cold and unpleasant person. But with these people, Prince Andrei knew how to position himself in such a way that he was respected and even feared.
Coming out of Kutuzov's office into the waiting room, Prince Andrei with papers approached his comrade, adjutant on duty Kozlovsky, who was sitting by the window with a book.
- Well, what, prince? Kozlovsky asked.
- Ordered to draw up a note, why not let's go forward.
- And why?
Prince Andrew shrugged his shoulders.
- No word from Mac? Kozlovsky asked.
- No.
- If it were true that he was defeated, then the news would come.
“Probably,” said Prince Andrei and went to the exit door; but at the same time to meet him, slamming the door, a tall, obviously newcomer, Austrian general in a frock coat, with a black scarf tied around his head and with the Order of Maria Theresa around his neck, quickly entered the reception room. Prince Andrew stopped.
- General Anshef Kutuzov? - quickly said the visiting general with a sharp German accent, looking around on both sides and without stopping walking to the door of the office.
“The general is busy,” said Kozlovsky, hurriedly approaching the unknown general and blocking his way from the door. - How would you like to report?
The unknown general looked contemptuously down at the short Kozlovsky, as if surprised that he might not be known.
“The general chief is busy,” Kozlovsky repeated calmly.
The general's face frowned, his lips twitched and trembled. He took out a notebook, quickly drew something with a pencil, tore out a piece of paper, gave it away, went with quick steps to the window, threw his body on a chair and looked around at those in the room, as if asking: why are they looking at him? Then the general raised his head, stretched out his neck, as if intending to say something, but immediately, as if carelessly starting to hum to himself, made a strange sound, which was immediately stopped. The door of the office opened, and Kutuzov appeared on the threshold. The general with his head bandaged, as if running away from danger, bent over, with large, quick steps of thin legs, approached Kutuzov.