History of Italy. Risorgimento

AD The Apennine Peninsula was the core of the Roman Empire, and since 395 - the Western Roman Empire, after the fall of which in 476 this territory was repeatedly attacked from outside and lost its political unity. In the Middle Ages, the territory of Italy remained fragmented. In the 16th century, a significant part of Italy was under the rule of Spain, after the war of 1701-1714 - the Austrian Habsburgs, and at the end of the 18th century it was occupied by the French. From the end of the 18th century, the movement for national liberation and the elimination of territorial fragmentation grew, but the Congress of Vienna (1814-1815) led to the restoration of feudal-absolutist monarchies in Italy.

As a result of the Congress of Vienna on Italian territory, the Kingdom of Sardinia (Piedmont), the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, the Duchy of Parma, the Duchy of Modena, the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, the Papal States (Papal States), the Duchy of Lucca and wholly subordinate to the Austrian Empire and controlled by the Austrian Vice had a certain state status -king of the so-called Lombardo-Venetian kingdom.

After the Austrians invaded Italy on the territory of the provinces of Veneto and Lombardy in 1815, the Lombardo-Venetian Kingdom (German: Lombardo-Venezianisches K; nigreich) was formed by decision of the Congress of Vienna 1814-1815, which constituted one of the crown lands of the Austrian Empire. It was ruled by the viceroy as an Austrian possession. In 1859 Austria lost Lombardy, in 1866 - Venice; both areas became part of the Italian kingdom.

Every national aspiration for political independence was suppressed by police, censorship, and a system of espionage. Relying on the Lombardo-Venetian kingdom, the Austrian government tried to rule over all of Italy. His despotism aroused extreme hatred throughout Italy, as a result of which his goal - "to suppress the Jacobin aspirations of the Italians and thereby ensure the tranquility of Italy" (Metternich's words) - was not achieved; on the contrary, hatred of a foreign conqueror gave a new impetus to unifying aspirations. The whole history of the Lombardo-Venetian kingdom is a history of conspiracies, secret societies and indignations that culminated in the revolution of 1848.
In 1859, Lombardy (except Mantua and Peschiera) was ceded to Sardinia, and only the Venetian region remained behind Austria. In 1866, the entire Venetian region, with the districts of Lombardy still under Austrian rule, was ceded to Italy.
The only king to be crowned as king of the Lombardo-Venetian kingdom was Emperor Ferdinand I.
Austrian Viceroys of the Lombardo-Venetian Kingdom
1814-1815: Prince Heinrich XV Reiss zu Plauen
1815-1816: Heinrich Joseph Johann von Bellegard
1816-1818: Archduke Anton Victor Habsburg
1818-1848: Archduke Rainer Joseph of Habsburg
1848-1857: Joseph Radetzky
1857-1859: Ferdinand Maximilian Joseph von Habsburg

After the rule of Austria was established in Italy, the ideas of national unity began to spread in the country. A national liberation movement called the Risorgimento began. This movement has been going on since the end of the 18th century. until 1861 (the unification of Italy, the emergence of the Italian kingdom), and completely ended in 1870 with the accession to the Italian kingdom of Rome.

The ideological premises of the Risorgimento are very diverse: these are both enlightenment and liberal ideas, romantic-nationalist, republican, socialist or anti-clerical, secular and ecclesiastical. The expansionist ambitions of the House of Savoy were combined with anti-Austrian sentiments.
"We have created Italy, now we must create an Italian" (Camillo Cavour).
During this period, a period of wars and uprisings passed in Italy.
1820 - the beginning of the uprising in the Kingdom of Naples, subsequently suppressed by the Austrian intervention;

1821 - unrest spreads to Piedmont on the initiative of a secret society led by Santarosa and Confalonieri; the uprising was also put down by the Austrians;

1831 - The Austrians suppress another uprising - in the Duchy of Parma. Giuseppe Mazzini founds in Marseille "Young Italy", a patriotic movement that fought for the unification of Italy and its inclusion in the European context.

1833 - Unsuccessful attempt by "Young Italy" to raise an uprising in Genoa.

1848-1849 - "Five Days of Milan" and the first war for independence with Austria, which ended unsuccessfully (the truce in Vignal and the Milan peace treaty), but played an important role in the development and spread of patriotic sentiments.

June - July 1857 - Pisacane expedition: an unsuccessful attempt to raise an uprising in the Kingdom of Naples.

1859-1860 - the second war of independence, which resulted in the unification of the Sardinian kingdom with Lombardy, Tuscany, Romagna, Parma and Modena, in which a popular vote took place. The landing of Giuseppe Garibaldi in Sicily and the union with Sardinia of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies.
In March 1861, the first all-Italian parliament, which met in Turin, declared Sardinia, together with all the lands attached to it, the Kingdom of Italy, and proclaimed King Victor Emmanuel the King of Italy. Florence became the capital of the kingdom. Thus, the fruits of the popular struggle of 1859-1860. were appropriated by the monarchy and the bloc of liberal nobility and big bourgeoisie that supported it.
In 1861, the king of Sardinia, Victor Emmanuel II, proclaimed the creation of a single state, which, however, did not yet include Rome and Venice.
The new Italian state united 22 million people. Several million Italians still continued to languish under Austrian oppression in the Venetian region and under the rule of the Pope, guarded by French troops. Savoy and Nice, inhabited by Italians, were annexed to France in 1860: this was Napoleon's payment for his support for the unification of Italy under the auspices of the Sardinian (Savoy) dynasty.
By 1870, Italy was already practically within its modern borders, and in July 1871, Rome became the capital of a united Italy.
02/18/1861 - adoption of the constitution of the Italian Kingdom
March 17, 1861 - The new Parliament proclaims the Kingdom of Italy, headed by Victor Emmanuel II.

August 1862 - Garibaldi's first campaign against Rome.

In 1862, Garibaldi, at the head of a detachment of two thousand volunteers, undertook a campaign to liberate Rome. "Rome or death!" - such was the slogan of the Garibaldians. Italian royal troops were moved towards Garibaldi. There was a French legion in Rome. The government of Victor Emmanuel would like to include Rome in the Kingdom of Italy, but it was afraid of a conflict with Napoleon III, and therefore opposed Garibaldi. A battle took place at Mount Aspromonte. Garibaldi was wounded and taken prisoner; the campaign against Rome failed.

The democratic public throughout Europe followed Garibaldi's struggle with great sympathy. When he arrived in London in 1864, the popular masses of the British capital gave the illustrious revolutionary an enthusiastic reception.

In 1866, Italy, by prior agreement with Prussia, took part in the war against Austria. The war showed the weakness of the Italian monarchy. The royal troops in battles with the Austrians were defeated both on land (at Custozza) and at sea (near Lissa); only the corps of volunteers, headed again by Garibaldi, won victories. The defeat of the main Austrian forces by the Prussian army in the Battle of Sadovaya determined the outcome of the war: Austria was forced to lay down its arms. Under the terms of the peace treaty, the Venetian region was reunited with Italy.
1866 - Third War of Independence in alliance with Prussia (see Austro-Prussian War), during which the Veneto region with Venice was annexed to Italy.

June 1867 - Garibaldi's second campaign against Rome.

September 1870 - Italian troops enter Rome, from which the French garrison has been withdrawn (see Franco-Prussian War).

The creation of a unified Italian national state was finally completed in 1870 during the Franco-Prussian War. After the first defeats of France in the war, Napoleon III was forced to withdraw the French legion from Italy. In early September 1870, Italian troops, as well as a volunteer detachment under the command of a former ally of Garibaldi Bixio, entered the territory of the papal region and occupied Rome on September 20. Pope Pius IX was deprived of secular power.

In January 1871 the capital of the Italian kingdom was moved from Florence to Rome. The long struggle of the Italian people for the reunification of their country has come to an end. True, due to the ideological immaturity of the masses, the weakness of the republican-democratic leadership and the conspiracy of the ruling classes, the fruits of victory went to the big bourgeoisie and the liberal nobility, who retained the monarchical system and their economic and political privileges. The Italian bourgeoisie, fearing the activity of the popular masses, preferred to enter into a deal with large landowners, which subsequently had an extremely negative effect on the development of capitalism in united Italy. Nevertheless, the completion of the unification of Italy was a great step forward in the history not only of the Italian people, but of the whole of Europe.
In 1924, the fascist regime of Mussolini came to power in Italy, which lasted until 1943, when the dictator Benito Mussolini was executed by partisans, and allied troops landed in Italy. In June 1946, the King of Italy abdicated and left the country. Italy was proclaimed a republic.

In the middle of the XIX century. in the struggle for the unification of Italy, there were two directions - radical democratic and moderately liberal. Representatives of the first direction advocated the independence and unification of Italy "from below" through an uprising carried out by the people, and the introduction of a republican form of government in the country. Supporters of the second - defended the idea of ​​obtaining national liberation "from above" thanks to the struggle that would be led by the Kingdom of Sardinia (Piedmont),

and saw a future united Italy by a monarchy.

The defeat of the revolution of 1848-1849 caused disappointment among many Italian patriots in the ideals of the radical democrats. Thus, G. Garibaldi and his supporters came to the conclusion that an alliance with moderate liberals and Piedmont was necessary in the struggle for the unification of Italy. In 1852, a well-known representative of moderate liberals, Count Camillo Benso Cavour (1820-1861), became Prime Minister of Piedmont.

The Piedmontese aristocrat Cavour was one of the outstanding statesmen of Italy in the 19th century. Since 1847, he published the newspaper Risorgimento, where he called on all Italian monarchs to unite to fight against Austria. Cavour did not participate in the revolution of 1848-1849, but Te was an attentive observer. She helped him to conclude that only the strongest power in Italy, Piedmont, was capable of leading the unification of the country. In 1852, Cavour became Prime Minister of Piedmont and, with the support of King Victor Emmanuel II, began to implement his plans.

Cavour did not accept revolutionary radicalism and believed that Italy could unite only with the help of one of the great powers, capable of defeating Austria. In order for Piedmont to become the center of Italian unification, it must be transformed through reforms into a modern state with a constitutional form of government and a developed economy. The activities of the Cavour government contributed to the economic recovery of the Sardinian kingdom, thanks to which its defenses were strengthened, the Piedmontese army was enlarged and re-equipped.

Piedmont took part in the Crimean War against Russia, sending 15 thousand soldiers to the Crimea. Thanks to this, an alliance was formed between the Sardinian kingdom and France. In July 1858, at a secret meeting in the French resort of Plombieres, C. B. Cavour agreed with Napoleon III that a 200,000-strong French army would help the 100,000-strong Piedmontese army liberate Lombardy and Venice from the Austrians. For this, Piedmont returned Savoy and Nice to France, which they received by the decisions of the Congress of Vienna.

In April 1859, Austria, having learned about this deal, was the first to declare war on Piedmont and invaded its territory. In the battles of Palestro, Magenta and Solferino, the combined Franco-Piedmontese army defeated the Austrians and, developing the offensive, liberated Lombardy.

All of Italy was swept by a wave of national upsurge. However, on July 11, 1859, in Villa Franco, Napoleon III signed an agreement with Austria, according to which only Lombardy was transferred to the Sardinian kingdom, and Venice remained under the Austrian authorities. Outraged by this, Victor Emmanuel II refused to hand over Savoy and Nice to the French, as they violated the preliminary agreements. Probably, Napoleon III did not want a strong united Italy near the southeastern borders of his state.

Cavour took the actions of the French emperor as a betrayal of the Italians. With the tacit approval of the Prime Minister of Piedmont, in July 1859 in Tuscany, Parma and Modena, as a result of popular uprisings, the dukes from the Habsburg dynasty were removed from power. The newly formed governments at the beginning of 1860, based on the results of plebiscites, announced their accession to the Kingdom of Sardinia. However, Cavour was able to accomplish this only with the consent of Napoleon IP and giving him Savoy and Nice.

In April 1860, a popular uprising broke out on the island of Sicily. Local radicals, led by G. Mazzini, turned to Garibaldi for help. May 6, 1860 from Genoa, two ships with 1200 volunteers, led by Garibaldi, went to the aid of the Sicilians. Following the example of the commander, all the fighters of the "Thousand" were dressed in red shirts. The arrival of Garibaldi in Sicily led to a general uprising against the authority of the Neapolitan king. Cavour denied accusations of assisting Garibaldi, but helped him arm his "Tisyachuo" and those who joined her on the Xi - chipper. The decisive battle took place in May 1860 near Calatafimi. Having received a victory in it, already with 10 thousand people, Garibaldi captured Palermo and crossed to the territory of the Apennine Peninsula.

September 7, 1860 Garibaldi's troops triumphantly entered Naples. The king fled, and his army capitulated. Garibaldi was proclaimed temporary dictator of the two Sicilies on behalf of the Sardinian king.

Cavour decided to take advantage of the situation in southern Italy. Having convinced Napoleon III, the Garibaldians were going to move to Rome, where there were French troops, a clash with which was inevitable, he ordered the Sardinian army to move through the Papal States towards Garibaldi. In September 1860, she defeated the papal troops and occupied most of the papal possessions.

October 15, 1860 Sardinian troops entered Naples. A plebiscite soon took place, at which the Neapolitans and part of the captured Sardinians of the Papal States spoke in favor of joining Piedmont. The radicals, led by G. Mazzini, demanded to proclaim a republic, but Cavour convinced Garibaldi to disband his army and transfer power to Victor Emmanuel P. As a result, at the end of 1860, almost all of Italy, except for Venice and a small part of the Papal States with Rome, became part of the Sardinian kingdoms.

Italy on the eve of the revolution

By the 1840s, Italy is a backward country suffering from feudal remnants. There is no opportunity for the development of trade and industry on the Apennine Peninsula - the borders of several relatively large kingdoms interfere. However, de facto most of Italy is under the rule of Austria and periodically becomes a battlefield of major European powers. Against this background, all-European revolutionary ideas enter the country, which resonate in the minds of the local progressive bourgeoisie. There are dreams of a nation state, of unification - of the Risorgimento.

Before the Italian cities bristled with barricades in 1848, attempts were even made to reform in various areas, and the local monarchs, the Bourbons and the Habsburgs, made concessions to society. So, despite the love of autocracy, the Grand Duke of Tuscany Leopold agreed to the creation of a civil guard, the introduction of freedom of the press, recognized the authority of an advisory body under the Tuscan government. Events in Tuscany prompted a similar liberalization in Parma, Modena and Lucca. Moreover, in Lucca, the duke renounced his possessions in favor of Tuscany for monetary compensation.

Easy reforms did not save the Italian monarchs

In October 1847, the long-awaited reforms in Piedmont followed: the introduction of public justice, the restriction of censorship and police arbitrariness, the creation of local governments. In the period from the end of 1847 to the end of March 1848, the situation became even more complicated: the struggle for reforms began to develop into a revolutionary movement. At the same time, in the Papal States, Pius IX created a council of ministers, declared a political amnesty, began building railways and proposed the creation of a customs union in Italy. The reforms of Pius IX seriously disturbed the Viennese court. Austrian troops occupied Ferrara, which was in close proximity to the Papal States. In response, Pius IX sent Swiss formations to his borders, which caused the approval of broad patriotic sections of the population.

Revolution

Although the revolution failed, it nevertheless played an important role in the political development of Italy and its further unification. It all started in Palermo: on January 12, 1848, a popular uprising broke out there, power passed into the hands of the provisional government. The rebellion in Palermo set off instability throughout Italy. In the north, in the territories directly controlled by Austria - in Venice and Lombardy - unrest broke out. But the middle of March was really significant, when the revolution engulfed Vienna. As soon as news of this reached Italy, an uprising began in the north, and already on March 23, Lombardy and Venice created the Republic of St. Mark.

Piedmont soon became the center of Italian unification.

Soon the Sardinian kingdom with its capital in Piedmont joined the national liberation war. For this, we must thank King Charles Albert and his imperious desires: in the future, during the first war with Austria, the desire of Piedmont to unite the whole country around itself will become a stumbling block in dialogue with other states of the peninsula. Although at first this helped a lot: fearing the strengthening of the political weight of the north, the king of Sicily and the duke of Tuscany hastened to send their troops to war.

However, if everything was so perfect, then Italy would have united by 1850. During the war against Austria, Italy at the same time was burdened by internal conflicts: the Sicilians fought with King Ferdinand II for their freedom, in Rome, the locals overthrew the pope and proclaimed a republic. All this certainly did not go to the benefit of the common cause. By the summer, internal strife had significantly undermined the combat effectiveness of the army: in fact, only Piedmont remained against the Austrians. The Tuscans left the front in May. A little later, in the summer, the king of both Sicilies, Ferdinand II, withdrew his troops to suppress local revolutionaries and disperse the newly appeared parliament. The Pope also recalled his Swiss.

The defeat of the revolution

By 1849, there were three republics in Italy: in Rome, where the townspeople expelled the pope; in Venice, the island part of the city was still on the defensive; and in Florence - from there the locals expelled Duke Leopold II. Republicans longed for a fight against an external enemy and national unification. In the wake of a new round of revolutionary struggle in large cities, King Charles Albert again declares war on Austria on March 12, but after 11 days his troops are defeated near Novara. In fear of the disgruntled townspeople, the king abdicates in favor of his son, who sanctioned the Constitution and Parliament.

Pius IX

In the summer, the French came to the aid of the Pope in order to expel the Republicans, led by Giuseppe Garibaldi, from Rome. In July 1849, the Roman Republic fell. In August of the same year, Venice surrendered, defended by a small garrison of Piedmontese and bombarded not only from land and ships, but also from the air: land mines fell on the city from balloons. In April, the liberal and democratic forces in Tuscany were defeated, and the throne was returned to Duke Leopold, and the dukes of Parma and Modena returned to their thrones.

National movement and the rise of Sardinian influence

The years of reaction came: all the gains of the revolution in the Italian cities were destroyed. With the exception of Piedmont (Sardinian kingdom), the old absolutist order returned everywhere. Ferdinand II was especially raging in Naples, nicknamed the "bomb king" for the brutal reprisal against the participants in the revolution of 1848-1849 in Sicily. Austria, the bulwark of all reactionary forces on the Apennine peninsula, subjected Lombardy and Venice to a harsh military regime; Austrian troops occupied Tuscany until 1855 and remained indefinitely in Romagna, one of the papal provinces. The Pope also insisted that the French troops not leave Rome. Glorified in 1847-1848 as the "spiritual leader" of the national movement, Pius IX has now turned into its bitterest, implacable opponent.

Parliament continued to sit in Piedmont, and the kingdom developed

Against the backdrop of nuts tightening all over the peninsula, the Sardinian kingdom looked in a special way. Parliament continued to sit in Piedmont, and the kingdom developed. Attempts by local reactionaries, as well as by Austria, to achieve the abolition of the constitution failed. During the years of reaction, the positions of Piedmont in general and of the Piedmontese liberals in particular became unusually strong. This happened for several reasons. Firstly, many Italians saw in the Kingdom of Sardinia, albeit a monarchical one, but a way out from under the Austrian yoke. Secondly, Piedmont became the center of patriotic emigration, many prominent figures of the revolution accumulated here. It is also important to understand that after the end of the wars, many lost faith in the democrats, among whom there was a split: some continued to bend the radical line, in which socialist notes were often heard, while others joined the moderates. The Italians, however, lost confidence not only in the Democrats, but also in the local liberals, against whose background the Piedmontese seemed advantageous. As a result, along with the influence of the Piedmontese liberals, the influence of the ruling house of Sardinia, the House of Savoy, also grew. The idea of ​​unification around the Kingdom of Sardinia acquired a national character and manifested itself in the form of a network of cells of the liberal pro-Sardinian "Italian National Society"

From Austria to France

The expulsion of the Austrians from Lombardy and Venice was the main goal of the Piedmontese liberals. This brought them closer to the Emperor of France, Napoleon III, who tried to increase his own sphere of influence: to plant his henchmen in the center and in the south of Italy. Also, according to agreements between Piedmont and France, Nice and Savoy were the last to depart in exchange for Lombardy and Venice, which were planned to be annexed to the Sardinian kingdom.

Giuseppe Garibaldi, 1870 photograph

The build-up of forces and preparations (200,000 French and 100,000 Italians were preparing to oppose Austria) led to an increase in tension between the powers. On April 26, 1859, the war began. The Austrians suffered defeat after defeat. Particularly distinguished at the front was the detachment of Giuseppe Garibaldi, who rather quickly advanced deep into the Austrian territories, taking city after city. Successes in the north caused the rise of the national movement. In Tuscany, Modena and the Papal States of Italy, the pro-Sardinian state of the United Provinces of Central Italy was formed.

Local rulers were forced to flee, and their power was taken over by a provisional government in which the liberals had the greatest weight. This did not please Napoleon III, who, without warning the allies, made peace with Austria and retired, having received the promise. Sardinia, however, received Lombardy. The terms of the agreement also included the return of the legitimate authorities to the center of Italy, but this was not destined to come true. During March 1860, the central regions of Italy: Parma, Piacenza and Tuscany joined the Kingdom of Sardinia. The territory of the Pope was greatly reduced, Venice remained under the rule of Austria.

Incorporation of Sicily

In the very south of Italy, in the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, since 1849, hatred for the ruling Bourbons and their regime has been accumulating. Hatred resulted in the Palermo uprising in 1860, which failed in the city, but spilled over into peasant unrest.

Departure of the Thousand from Genoa

When the news of the uprising reached Piedmont, the Sicilian emigrants who had gathered there began to hastily prepare for a march to the south under the leadership of Giuseppe Garibaldi. The liberals did not really like the initiative of the democrats, but they could not do anything - by openly speaking out against, they would have discredited themselves as leaders of the national liberation movement.

The Path of the "Thousand" Garibaldi

Soon 1,100 volunteers gathered from all over Italy: mostly the petty bourgeoisie and veterans of the Roman and Venetian republics. Not surprisingly, a detachment of veterans, under the command of an experienced commander, who had become famous throughout all previous wars as a skilled leader of volunteer detachments, crushed the Bourbon army at Calatafimi on May 15, 1860. Then Garibaldi made a maneuver through the mountains and, together with a detachment of three thousand peasants who had joined, broke into Palermo.

Association problems

The arrival of Garibaldi revealed many problems not only in the Sicilian state, in which soldiers deserted en masse and / or went to the service of the Piedmontese, but also in the very essence of the national movement. Thus, the government in the territories occupied by Garibaldi suppressed the protests of the peasants who were striving for the socialization of the lands. This did not add to the popularity of Garibaldi among the peasantry. An equally strong split occurred in Piedmont: the liberals did not want to allow the strengthening of the democrats and the growth in the popularity of revolutionary ideas that could lead to the fall of the House of Savoy in Piedmont. Piedmont was also alarmed by Garibaldi's plans to capture Rome - this could provoke French intervention.

One way or another, by the end of 1860, Italy was de jure united under the rule of Piedmont. The liberals did not allow the convocation of a constituent assembly, so the territories were simply annexed to the Kingdom of Sardinia, to the delight of the central and southern bourgeoisie and the nobility. The Constituent Assembly would have been unpredictable, the House of Savoy seemed already native. But the united kingdom immediately had a significant problem: peasant uprisings swept the south of Italy. Moreover, the Bourbons, who settled in Rome, played on the feelings of the peasants. The country actually found itself in a civil war. Before that, the bourgeoisie liberated the territory from alien rulers, but now it fought with its own people, who wanted justice.

Rome is ours

The Italian authorities were eager to annex the Eternal City and deal with the Bourbons who had settled there. They were hampered by the French corps guarding Rome. Rejecting the revolutionary fervor, the liberals began to sell church property - mostly land. As a consequence, the influence of the Holy See fell, but only slightly. Thus, the pope urged believers not to take part in the political life of Italy. This call was one of the reasons for the difference in the development of the urban north and the peasant religious south. Rome was only annexed when the Franco-Prussian War began and Napoleon III had to withdraw his troops. When Rome was taken in 1870, King Victor Emmanuel II uttered the famous phrase: "We have come to Rome and we will remain in it!" The Pope, the “eternal prisoner” of Italy, was left with only the Vatican Palace in his possession. Since 1871, Rome has been the capital of the Italian kingdom.

Task 33. In 1849, in Germany, the artist A. Rethel created a woodcut and called it "Dance of Death".
Consider the illustration. Think about what events could prompt the artist to create this work. What details of the engraving help to guess the author's attitude to these events?

The engraving is dedicated to the events of 1848 in Germany. Its real name is "Death the Conqueror". In the center we see Death holding the banner of rebellion and towering over the barricade. Volleys of buckshot sweep away the defenders of the barricade - the workers. In the eyes of the dying man, turned to Death, a plea for help is mixed with deceived hope. Death, in the crown of the victor, looking back at the faceless soldiers, leaves and leaves dead, wounded, weeping widows and orphans on the barricades. The revolution caused deep disappointment in Rethel - convinced of the hopelessness of the struggle, he considered those who called for the uprising of the destitute and poor to be deceivers, which is noticeable in the most characteristic details - a triumphant death and a dying worker.

Task 34. On a contour map, mark the borders of Prussia by 1864; paint over with one color the territories captured by Prussia in 1864-1866, with another color - the states that entered the North German Union, and mark the borders of this Union; arrows indicate the offensive of the Prussian troops in the wars with Denmark and Austria.

Task 35. Write two descriptions of Otto von Bismarck as a politician: through the eyes of a Prussian journalist and through the eyes of an Austrian journalist.

1. Bismarck is a man of violent temperament and extremely determined. He has a strong character and does not stop at any difficulties. He believes that the strong is always right and builds his entire policy on this, preferring to act with "iron and blood" than with speeches and decrees. At the same time, Bismarck knows how to realistically assess the situation and rationally choose allies. Despite the conservative views, he shows flexibility in solving domestic political issues, entering into agreements with various sectors of German society (Prussian journalist).
2. Bismarck is an active person, resolute and firm in his intentions. Paying tribute to these traits of his character, it should be noted that Bismarck often acts unceremoniously, preferring brute force and pressure and in every possible way rejecting a civilized discussion of the issue. It is difficult to rely on Bismarck as a politician and diplomat - if his yesterday's ally is not satisfied with something, then Bismarck turns his back on him or becomes his enemy. He does not respect any agreements. It may seem that he is an unprincipled person and does not have firm convictions - he forgets his personal sympathies so easily, entering into agreements with the people he needs (Austrian journalist).

Task 36. Shortly before Garibaldi's campaign in Sicily, a correspondent from one of the Turin newspapers interviewed him and Cavour. The politicians were asked to answer the same questions.

1. What do you see as the main purpose of your life?
2. How do you expect to achieve your goal?
3. What form of political structure in Italy do you consider preferable?
4. Do you think to do something to improve the situation of the common people?
What do you think Garibaldi and Cavour said? Write down their responses. As a hint, use the text of § 17 of the textbook.

Task 37. On a contour map, mark the borders of Italy by 1859; paint free and dependent territories in different colors; mark the battlefields during the wars with Austria; arrows indicate the path of the "thousand Garibaldi" during the 1860 campaign in Sicily and Southern Italy; mark the places of battles of the army of Garibaldi with the troops of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies; mark the borders of the Kingdom of Italy by 1861, the route to Rome of the army of the Kingdom of Italy in 1870, the borders of the united kingdom by 1871.

Task 38. Victor Hugo wrote:

"What is Garibaldi? Man, nothing more. But a man in the highest sense of the word. A man of freedom, a man of humanity... Does he have an army? No. Only a handful of volunteers. Combat reserves? No. Powder? Several barrels. Guns? taken from the enemy. What is his strength? What gives him victory? What's behind it? Soul of the peoples.
Do you agree with this high assessment? If you agree, then why?

I fully agree with the assessment. Garibaldi was a true folk hero, a selfless, noble and disinterested man, convinced of the justice of revolutionary ideas and giving all his strength to the struggle for the unity of Italy and the freedom of the common people.

Task 39. Continue the sentence.

The unification of Italy and the creation of a united kingdom was of great importance for the country, since ...
created conditions for the economic development of the country, reforming the state system, establishing civil rights and freedoms and abolishing feudal vestiges.

Task 40. Read an extract from a historical source and answer the questions.

From the memoirs of Garibaldi (about the events of 1859-1860)
“I can proudly say: I was and remain a Republican, but at the same time I never believed that democracy is the only possible system that should be forced on the majority of the nation. In a free country, where the valiant majority of the people voluntarily declare for a republic, there, of course, a republic is the best form of government ... But since under present conditions, at least now, in 1859, a republic is impossible ... then, since the opportunity presented itself to unite the peninsula by combining the interests of the dynastic forces with the national ones, I unconditionally joined this ... "

What historical event does Garibaldi write about in his memoirs?
On the unification of Italy, namely the war with Austria and the annexation of Central Italy;

How would you characterize Garibaldi's political views?
Being a staunch Republican, Garibaldi was a patriot of his country and considered it possible to unite various political forces in order to achieve a common goal.

Express your opinion about this person's beliefs.
Garibaldi is an icon to follow. A staunch supporter of the revolutionary idea, all his life he selflessly and disinterestedly fought for the unity and freedom of the motherland, the triumph of justice.